Unit II : Law,  Power, Authority & Legitimacy By  Dr. Farzeen Bano -----------------------------------------------  Concept of Law Meaning of Law  Law refers to a system of rules and principles established by a governing authority to regulate behavior, maintain order, ensure justice, and protect rights. It serves as a framework for societal functioning, resolving disputes, and maintaining harmony.   Definitions of Law  1. John Austin , "Law is the command of the sovereign backed by the threat of punishment."   2.  Roscoe Pound ,  "Law is a social engineering tool to balance competing interests and promote the common good."   3.  Salmond , "Law is the body of principles recognized and applied by the state in the administration of justice."   Characteristics of Law 1. Systematic Framework    - Law is a structured system of rules that provides a consistent approach to governance.   2. So...

  Unit IX : Marxism: Karl Marx By Dr. Farzeen Bano ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Karl Marx’s Political Theories Karl Marx (1818–1883), a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, and revolutionary socialist, is one of the most influential figures in the history of political thought. Marx's theories, particularly regarding the nature of society, politics, economics, and history, laid the foundation for the modern socialist and communist movements. His writings have profoundly impacted political ideologies, most notably Marxism, which has been a guiding philosophy for many socialist and communist movements globally. Marx’s political theory primarily revolves around the concepts of class struggle, historical materialism, the critique of capitalism, and the role of the state in class society. He advocated for revolutionary change, leading to the establishment of a classless society where the state and private property would be abolished. Ma...

Unit III : Liberty, Equality, Justice By Dr. Farzeen Bano ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Liberty: Meaning, Definition, Characteristics, Types, Theories, and Criticism   Meaning of Liberty  - Liberty  refers to the condition of being free from external constraints and the ability to act according to one’s own will, within the boundaries of law and morality.   - It is a fundamental principle of democratic societies, emphasizing individual autonomy and human dignity.   Definitions of Liberty  1. Thomas Hobbes:      - "Liberty is the absence of external impediments to motion."      - Hobbes linked liberty to freedom from physical restraints.   2. John Locke:      - "Liberty is to be free from restraint and violence from others."      - Locke emphasized liberty in the context of natural rights.   3. John St...