B. A. 1st Sem, Unit: I, Political Science, (Major)
By Dr. Farzeen Bano
Unit-1
Politics
Origin and Meaning
- The term "politics" is derived from the Greek word “polis”, meaning a city-state in ancient Greece.
- Aristotle referred to politics as the “master science” because it governs all aspects of human life.
Definitions of Politics
1. Aristotle: “Politics is the study of the affairs of the polis or state.”
2. David Easton: “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values.”
3. Harold Lasswell: “Politics is who gets what, when, and how.”
4. Andrew Heywood: “Politics is the activity through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live.”
- Politics involves decision-making, distribution of resources, and governance within a group or society.
Scope
1. State and Government: Structure, processes, and functions of institutions.
2. Power and Authority: Study of power dynamics and legitimacy.
3. Political Behavior: Analysis of political attitudes and participation.
4. Public Policies: Formulation and implementation of rules and laws.
Significance
- Politics ensures social order, justice, and economic stability.
- It helps reconcile conflicting interests and resolves disputes.
- Politics shapes laws, policies, and governance structures.
--- Political Science--
Political Science: Meaning, Traditional and Modern Concept
1. Meaning of Political Science
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Etymology: The word Politics comes from the Greek word "polis", meaning city-state. Science means systematic knowledge.
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Definition: Political Science is the systematic study of the state, power, government, political processes, institutions, policies, and political behavior.
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It explains how societies are governed and how authority is distributed and exercised.
Famous definitions:
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Aristotle: “Political Science is the master science” (because it deals with the good of the whole society).
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David Easton: Politics is the “authoritative allocation of values.”
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Harold Lasswell: “Politics is who gets what, when, and how.”
2. Traditional Concept of Political Science
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The traditional view dominated up to the early 20th century.
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Focus: State and its institutions (law, constitution, government, sovereignty).
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Approach: Philosophical, historical, normative (studied what the state ought to be, rather than what it actually is).
Key features:
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Emphasis on state and government.
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Concerned with ideal institutions rather than reality.
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Normative approach – focus on ethics and justice.
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Based on philosophy, history, and law.
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Main exponents: Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel.
Criticism:
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Too idealistic and normative.
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Ignored political behavior, social forces, and economic factors.
3. Modern Concept of Political Science
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Emerged in the 20th century (especially after World War II).
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Influenced by the behavioral revolution in the 1930s–1950s.
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Focus: Not only on the state, but also on political processes, behavior, power relations, interest groups, international politics.
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Approach: Empirical, scientific, realistic, value-neutral.
Key features:
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Study of political behavior of individuals and groups.
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Use of scientific methods (surveys, statistics, systems analysis).
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Interdisciplinary approach (borrows from sociology, psychology, economics).
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Broader scope – includes comparative politics, international relations, public administration, political sociology.
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Main thinkers: David Easton, Harold Lasswell, Gabriel Almond, Robert Dahl.
David Easton’s System Theory: Politics is a system of inputs (demands, support) and outputs (policies, decisions).
4. When Did the Modern Concept Emerge?
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The modern concept of Political Science emerged in the early 20th century, but became dominant after World War II (1945 onwards) with the rise of the Behavioral Approach.
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The American Political Science Association (founded in 1903) played a major role in promoting Political Science as a modern discipline.
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Behavioralism in the 1950s and 1960s marked the scientific, empirical turn in Political Science.
✅ Summary for students:
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Traditional Political Science = state-centered, normative, philosophical (up to early 20th century).
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Modern Political Science = power, behavior, empirical study, scientific (emerged 20th century, became dominant post-World War II).
Nature of Political Science
Political Science: An Art or a Science?
1. Political Science as a Science
Like natural sciences, Political Science follows methods such as data collection, hypothesis, testing, and analysis.
Example: Election studies in India by CSDS (Centre for the Study of Developing Societies) collect voter data, analyze caste, gender, an
Science predicts natural events, and Political Science attempts to predict political behavior.
Example: In the U.S., political scientists often predict voter turnout based on past trends. In India, psephologists like Prannoy Roy predict election results using survey data.
Political Science builds theories applicable across nations.
Example: “Democratic Peace Theory” says democracies rarely fight wars against each other—tested worldwide.
It relies on field surveys, case studies, and quantitative methods to study voter behavior, policy impacts, and institutional performance.
Example: Field surveys in villages to study how welfare schemes (like MNREGA or Ujjwala Yojana) affect voting behavior.
Supporters of Political Science as a Science:
2. Political Science as an Art
Arguments Supporting Political Science as an Art:
Politics is about solving real-life issues, where judgment and persuasion matter.
Example: When Indian leaders negotiated during the Constituent Assembly, they didn’t follow a formula; they debated and compromised.
Political Science deals with normative questions, such as "What is the ideal form of government?"
Example: Debates about Uniform Civil Code in India aren’t only about facts but also values of equality, freedom, and culture.
Human actions in politics are influenced by emotions, culture, and ethics, which are difficult to analyze scientifically. (Unlike physical sciences, human actions are unpredictable.)
Example: Despite economic progress, many poor voters in India still support leaders based on caste or emotional loyalty, not material benefits.
Requires artful skills like negotiation, charisma, and persuasion. Political practitioners must use intuition, negotiation, and charisma, reflecting the artistic side of politics.
Example: Nehru’s leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement or Gandhi’s non-violent struggle—no scientific formula, but vision and charisma.
Supporters of Political Science as an Art:
3. Dual Nature: A Science and an Art
Blending Science and Art:
Supporters of the Dual Nature:
Conclusion
Scope
- Study of the State: Origin, development, and functions.
- Government: It analyzes the organization and functioning of legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
- Constitution: Understanding the constitution as the framework within which governments operate is also central to the discipline.
- Political Systems: Types, structures, and functioning.
- International Relations: IR explores the relationships between nations, focusing on: diplomacy, conflicts, global governance, treaties, global organizations like the UN, WTO, and WHO, issues like war, peace, trade, and environmental cooperation, theories like Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism. Diplomacy,
- Study of Public Administration: As a subfield, it examines the functioning of bureaucracies and public policies. This includes the principles of organization, decision-making, and governance, with an emphasis on efficiency and service delivery.
- Globalization and Regionalism: Examines the impact of global integration and regional alliances like the EU or ASEAN.
- Environmental Politics: Addresses issues like climate change and sustainable development.
- Cyber Politics: Studies the role of technology and social media in modern governance and elections.
- Women and Gender Studies: Focuses on gender equality and political participation of women.
- Political Economy: This area explores the interaction between economics and politics.
- Political Sociology: This examines the relationship between society and politics, the role of social factors like caste, class, religion, and gender in politics.
- Study of Rights and Justice: Political Science analyzes fundamental rights, liberties, and justice systems, focusing on human rights, civil rights movements, and the rule of law.
- Role of Political Institutions: It studies the functioning of political institutions like: Parliaments and Congresses, political parties and electoral systems, interest groups and pressure groups.
- Study of Political Theories: Political Science delves into classical and modern political theories. These theories provide frameworks for understanding the principles guiding political behavior and systems.
- Comparative Politics: This branch studies the comparison of different political systems, institutions, and practices worldwide. It helps identify similarities and differences in governance, policy-making, and state structures across countries.
Conclusion
The scope of Political Science continues to evolve with global political developments and societal changes. It remains relevant in addressing issues of governance, power dynamics, and public welfare.
Differences between these terms
1. Politics vs Political Philosophy
- Meaning: Politics refers to practical activities like governance, power relations, and decision-making, dealing with the "what is." Political philosophy is a theoretical field exploring normative questions like justice, liberty, and equality, dealing with the "what ought to be."
- Nature: Politics is action-oriented and dynamic, involving real-world activities such as elections and governance. Political philosophy is speculative and focuses on abstract principles and ideals.
- Scope: Politics addresses governance, statecraft, and resource allocation. Political philosophy examines the moral and ethical foundations of governance.
- Focus: Politics emphasizes day-to-day political operations, while political philosophy explores the broader ethical and philosophical underpinnings of these operations.
- Example: Politics involves activities like political parties strategizing for elections, whereas political philosophy discusses concepts like Plato’s “Ideal State” or John Rawls’ “Theory of Justice.”
2. Political Thought vs Political Theory
- Meaning: Political thought is the historical evolution of ideas and ideologies about governance, focusing on thinkers like Aristotle or Rousseau. Political theory is a systematic analysis of political concepts and phenomena, often rooted in empirical and normative studies.
- Nature: Political thought is descriptive and evolutionary, focusing on how ideas have developed over time. Political theory is analytical and logical, addressing specific political issues or concepts.
- Scope: Political thought emphasizes the contributions of individual thinkers or traditions. Political theory explores broader frameworks like behavioralism, pluralism, or theories of power.
- Approach: Political thought takes a historical and descriptive approach, while political theory adopts a systematic and evaluative approach.
- Example: Political thought includes ideas like Rousseau’s social contract or Gandhian ideology, while political theory encompasses concepts like pluralist theory or Weber’s authority.
3. Political Philosophy vs Political Theory
- Meaning: Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy that deals with normative ideals like justice and liberty. Political theory is a subfield of political science that analyzes and explains political concepts and phenomena.
- Nature: Political philosophy is speculative, dealing with metaphysical and ethical inquiry. Political theory is both empirical and normative, combining observation with prescription.
- Focus: Political philosophy explores universal principles and ideals. Political theory focuses on specific concepts such as power, authority, and legitimacy.
- Example: Political philosophy includes Hobbes’ exploration of human nature in Leviathan. Political theory covers theories like Dahl’s concept of polyarchy or Marxist theory.
4. Politics vs Political Science
- Meaning: Politics is the practice of governance, involving power struggles and conflict resolution. Political science is the academic study of political systems, institutions, and behavior.
- Nature: Politics is dynamic and practical, focusing on real-world political activities. Political science is systematic and theoretical, focusing on understanding political phenomena.
- Scope: Politics focuses on the implementation and management of power, laws, and policies. Political science explores theories, institutions, and comparative studies of political systems.
- Methods: Politics uses informal methods like negotiations and power plays. Political science adopts scientific methods, including observation, analysis, and hypothesis testing.
- Example: Politics involves activities like campaigning or forming coalitions. Political science involves comparative studies of different political systems, such as democracy and autocracy.
5. Political Science vs Political Theory
- Meaning: Political science is the systematic study of political systems, governance, and institutions. Political theory is the theoretical framework used to analyze and interpret political concepts.
- Nature: Political science is a broader discipline covering institutions, processes, and global relations. Political theory is a subfield focusing on ideologies, principles, and conceptual debates.
- Scope: Political science includes areas like international relations, public administration, and comparative politics. Political theory deals with concepts like liberty, equality, and justice.
- Example: Political science involves studying federalism or parliamentary systems. Political theory includes frameworks like feminism, Marxism, or realism.
6. Politics vs Political Thought
- Meaning: Politics involves the practice of governance and decision-making within a society. Political thought refers to the historical evolution of political ideas and ideologies.
- Focus: Politics focuses on real-world applications of power, laws, and policies. Political thought examines the origins and development of political concepts over time.
- Nature: Politics is action-oriented and dynamic, dealing with conflicts, negotiations, and power struggles. Political thought is idea-oriented and descriptive, focusing on the writings and ideologies of key thinkers.
- Example: Politics includes activities like legislative debates or coalition-building. Political thought covers contributions like Aristotle’s classification of governments or Gandhi’s vision of non-violence.
Summary
These distinctions highlight the relationships and differences between practical and theoretical aspects of politics, ranging from day-to-day governance to normative ideals and systematic studies.
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Political Science and History: Relationship
1. Introduction
Political Science and History are considered twin disciplines.
John Seeley: “History without Political Science has no fruit, Political Science without History has no root.”
Political Science studies the theory and practice of politics, while History studies the record of past events.
Both complement each other—History provides facts, and Political Science interprets them.
2. How History Helps Political Science
Raw Material for Political Science
Historical events, revolutions, wars, and freedom struggles give content to political theories.
Example: The French Revolution (1789) shaped modern concepts of democracy, liberty, and equality.
Understanding Political Institutions
Constitutions, parliaments, monarchy, democracy, federalism—all developed over time.
Example: The British Parliament evolved through centuries of historical struggles like the Magna Carta (1215), Glorious Revolution (1688).
Development of Political Thought
Political theories of Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Marx were shaped by their historical context.
Example: Hobbes wrote Leviathan during the English Civil War, which influenced his idea of absolute sovereignty.
Lessons for the Present
Past mistakes help prevent future errors.
Example: Lessons from World War II influenced the creation of the United Nations to avoid global conflict.
3. How Political Science Helps History
Gives Meaning to Historical Events
Political Science explains the political significance of wars, revolutions, and treaties.
Example: The Partition of India (1947) is not only a historical fact but also a study in politics—nation-building, communalism, federalism.
Analyzing Leadership and Decision-Making
History records what leaders did, Political Science analyzes why they acted that way.
Example: Gandhi’s non-violence or Nehru’s foreign policy is better understood through political concepts.
Interpreting Continuity and Change
Political Science helps identify patterns like rise and fall of empires, transitions from monarchy to democracy.
4. Points of Interdependence
Both deal with state, power, and society.
Both are concerned with causes and consequences of events.
Political Science without history = abstract theory.
History without political science = collection of events without deeper meaning.
5. Examples for Students
American War of Independence (1776) → Idea of constitutional democracy.
French Revolution (1789) → Concept of equality and nationalism.
Indian National Movement → Connection of history with political ideas of freedom, federalism, secularism.
6. Conclusion
History and Political Science are mutually dependent.
History provides roots (facts, context, experience).
Political Science provides fruits (theories, principles, analysis).
Together, they make a complete understanding of politics possible.
Political Science and Economics: Relationship
1. Introduction
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Political Science and Economics are often called sister disciplines.
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Both deal with the organization of society:
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Political Science studies power and governance.
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Economics studies the production, distribution, and consumption of resources.
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Harold Lasswell’s famous line — “Politics is who gets what, when, and how” — shows how politics and economics are interconnected.
2. How Economics Helps Political Science
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Economic Basis of the State
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No political system can survive without economic stability.
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Example: The fall of the Soviet Union (1991) was due to economic weakness, which undermined its political structure.
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Influence on Political Ideologies
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Liberalism, Marxism, Socialism, and Capitalism are both economic and political doctrines.
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Example: Marxism explains politics in terms of economic class struggle.
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Public Policy and Economy
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Government policies (budget, taxation, subsidies, welfare) are shaped by economic needs.
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Example: Welfare State emerged to address economic inequality through political action.
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Elections and Economy
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Voters often choose governments based on economic performance (inflation, jobs, development).
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Example: In India, economic reforms of 1991 changed the political landscape.
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3. How Political Science Helps Economics
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Regulation and Policy-Making
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Political authority frames laws regulating trade, markets, taxation, and property.
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Example: Indian Parliament passed GST Act (2017) to unify the tax system.
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Stability for Economic Growth
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Political stability encourages investment and development.
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Example: Nations with stable democratic systems (like USA, UK) attract more economic growth.
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Distribution of Resources
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Politics decides how economic resources are shared (welfare schemes, subsidies, defense spending).
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Example: NREGA in India is both an economic policy (employment) and a political decision (poverty reduction).
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International Political Economy
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International trade, globalization, and financial relations are guided by both politics and economics.
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Example: WTO negotiations are political as well as economic.
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4. Points of Interdependence
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Economic prosperity strengthens political institutions.
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Political decisions shape economic systems (capitalism, socialism, mixed economy).
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In modern times, the study of Political Economy combines both disciplines.
5. Examples for Students
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Great Depression (1929–33): Changed politics worldwide, leading to welfare states.
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Oil Crisis (1973): Affected foreign policies of many nations.
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India’s Green Revolution (1960s): A political decision with deep economic impact.
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Economic Liberalization in India (1991): Political reform reshaped India’s economy.
6. Conclusion
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Politics and economics are inseparable.
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Economics provides the material foundation of society.
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Politics decides how those resources are distributed and used.
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Together, they explain how societies survive, develop, and progress.
Political Science and Geography: Relationship
1. Introduction
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Political Science studies the state, power, and governance, while Geography studies the earth’s physical features, climate, resources, and location.
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The two are deeply connected because geography shapes politics, and political decisions often deal with geographical realities.
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This relationship is studied under Political Geography and Geopolitics.
2. How Geography Influences Politics
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Territory and Boundaries
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The state cannot exist without a definite territory.
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Borders, size, and location affect national security and foreign policy.
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Example: India–China border disputes in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh directly affect India’s defense policy.
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Natural Resources
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Oil, coal, water, fertile land → influence national power.
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Example: Middle East politics revolves around oil resources.
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Climate and Environment
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Climate affects lifestyle, economy, and politics.
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Example: Russia’s cold climate influenced centralized governance and military strategies.
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Strategic Location
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Nations located on sea routes or trade routes become powerful.
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Example: Britain’s rise as a colonial power was due to its island location and naval dominance.
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Example: India’s position in the Indian Ocean makes it a key player in South Asia.
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Defense and Security
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Natural barriers like mountains, rivers, and seas provide defense advantages.
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Example: The Himalayas act as a protective shield for India.
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3. How Politics Influences Geography
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Boundary Demarcation
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Political decisions create or change geographical boundaries.
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Example: Partition of India (1947) changed the map of South Asia.
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Use of Resources
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Governments decide how to use land, water, and forests.
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Example: India’s river-water sharing treaties with Pakistan and Bangladesh.
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Environmental Policies
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Climate change, pollution, deforestation are addressed through political decisions.
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Example: India’s participation in the Paris Climate Agreement (2015).
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Geopolitics
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Power politics is shaped by geography (sea power, land power, air power).
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Example: USA’s control of Pacific and Atlantic oceans strengthened its global leadership.
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4. Interdependence
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Geography sets the stage, Politics plays the game.
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A state’s political power depends largely on its geographical conditions.
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Modern Political Science often studies Geography through Geopolitics, Political Ecology, and Environmental Politics.
5. Examples for Students
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Suez Canal & Panama Canal: Control over waterways gives global power.
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Russia’s Warm Water Port Policy: Its foreign policy aimed to gain access to warm seas.
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India’s Himalayas: Influence defense, foreign policy, and even climate.
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Africa’s Geography: Rich in resources but politically unstable due to external exploitation.
6. Conclusion
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Geography and Political Science are closely interlinked.
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Geography provides the physical basis of the state, while Political Science manages and secures it.
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Understanding politics without geography is incomplete.
ЁЯСЙFor unit-II (State and It's Elements) visit the link
https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2024/12/b-1st-sem-unit-ii-political-science.html
ЁЯСЙ Unit-II (Sovereignty and its Types)
https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2024/12/b-1st-sem-unit-iv-political-science.html
ЁЯСЙ Unit- II (Law, Power, Authority & Legitimacy)
https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2024/12/b-1st-sem-unitv-political-science-class.html
ЁЯСЙ Unit- III (Liberty, Equality & Justice)
https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2024/12/b-1st-sem-unit-vi-political-science.html
Unit- III ( Rights & Duties)
https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2025/10/b-1st-sem-political-science-major-unit.html
Unit- IV (Civic Consciousness & Political Responsibility)
https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2025/10/b-1st-sem-unit-iii-political-science.html
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