By Dr. Farzeen Bano Voting Behavior Definition: Voting behavior  refers to the way people vote in elections  and the factors that influence their choices  of candidates, parties, or policies. It involves studying why and how voters make their decisions , and what patterns or trends emerge across different regions, communities, or time periods. It is a key area in political science and sociology, helping understand the functioning of democracy and the effectiveness of electoral strategies.  How Voting Behavior Affects Elections: 1. Influences the Outcome of Elections - The collective voting behavior of citizens determines which party or candidate wins. - A shift in the behavior of even a small section of voters can swing the result , especially in close contests. 2. Shapes Electoral Campaign Strategies - Political parties study voter behavior patterns  to design their campaigns.   - Example : Appealing to caste, religion, age group, or economic class. - Camp...

By Dr. Farzeen Bano Unit:II - People's Representation Act -----------------------------------------------  People's Representation Act & Electoral Reforms  Introduction to the Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951 Purpose and Scope  - The Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951 , is a key legislation governing elections in India.   - It lays down the rules and procedures  for the conduct of elections  to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice President .   - Purpose:     - Ensures free and fair elections.     - Regulates electoral rolls  and candidate eligibility.     - Prevents corrupt practices  and electoral malpractices.     - Provides for disqualifications of candidates  based on criminal offenses, corruption, and other grounds.   Ke Provisions of the RPA, 1951  1. Qualifications for Contesting Election...

By Dr. Farzeen  Unit:1- Nature of Political Democracy in India ----------------------------------------------- Democracy and the Indian Democratic Framework    Origin and Meaning   -Origin:     - The term " democracy " is derived from the Greek words demos  (people) and kratos  (rule), meaning "rule by the people."     - First practiced in Ancient Greece , particularly in Athens , as a direct democracy.   - Meaning:     - Democracy is a form of government  where power is vested in the people, exercised either directly or through elected representatives.     - Abraham Lincoln’s definition:  “Democracy is the government of the people, by the people, for the people.”   Different Conceptions of Democracy  1. Liberal Democracy:     - Based on free and fair elections, rule of law, individual rights, and multi-party competition.     ...

By Dr. Farzeen Bano Unit: Indian Judicial System: Judicial Review and Judicial Activism -----------------------------------------------------------------  The Indian Judiciary  is an independent and hierarchical system responsible for interpreting and applying laws. It operates under the Constitution of India  and follows a three-tier structure: 1. Supreme Court of India (Apex Court)   - Established : 1950   - Head : Chief Justice of India (CJI)   - Jurisdiction : Original, Appellate, and Advisory   - Key Functions:     - Interprets the Constitution     - Hears appeals from High Courts and Tribunals     - Protects Fundamental Rights (under Article 32)     - Advises the President on legal matters (under Article 143)   2. High Courts (State-Level Courts)   - Number : 25 High Courts (as of now)   - Jurisdiction : State(s) or Union Territory(ies)...