B. A. 4th Sem, Unit-IV, Political Science (Indian Judicial System)Class Notes

By

Dr. Farzeen Bano

Unit: Indian Judicial System: Judicial Review and Judicial Activism

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 The Indian Judiciary is an independent and hierarchical system responsible for interpreting and applying laws. It operates under the Constitution of India and follows a three-tier structure:

1. Supreme Court of India (Apex Court)  

- Established: 1950  

- Head: Chief Justice of India (CJI)  

- Jurisdiction: Original, Appellate, and Advisory  

- Key Functions:  

  - Interprets the Constitution  

  - Hears appeals from High Courts and Tribunals  

  - Protects Fundamental Rights (under Article 32)  

  - Advises the President on legal matters (under Article 143)  

2. High Courts (State-Level Courts)  

- Number: 25 High Courts (as of now)  

- Jurisdiction: State(s) or Union Territory(ies)  

- Key Functions:

  - Handles civil and criminal appeals from lower courts  

  - Can issue writs under Article 226  

  - Supervises lower courts within its jurisdiction  

  - Some High Courts serve multiple states (e.g., Punjab & Haryana HC)  

3. Subordinate Courts (District and Lower Courts)  

A. District Courts (Civil & Sessions Courts) 

- Presided by: District Judge (Civil) & Sessions Judge (Criminal)  

- Jurisdiction: Civil and criminal cases at the district level  

- Appellate Authority: High Court  

B. Lower Courts 

1. Civil Courts– Handle civil disputes (property, contracts, family matters)  

2. Criminal Courts – Handle criminal cases (Magistrate Courts)  

3. Revenue Courts – Deal with land and revenue matters  

Specialized Tribunals and Courts 

-Tribunals: Like National Green Tribunal (NGT), Armed Forces Tribunal (AFT), etc.  

- Fast-Track Courts: For speedy justice in cases like sexual offenses  

- Lok Adalats: Alternative dispute resolution mechanism  

Key Features of Indian Judiciary 

- Independence: Free from executive and legislative control  

-Judicial Review: Power to declare laws unconstitutional  

- Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Allows citizens to seek justice for public causes  

- Writ Jurisdiction: Ensures fundamental rights are protected  

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Supreme Court of India

The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority in the country. It is established under Part V, Chapter IV (Articles 124-147) of the Constitution of India.

1. Constitutional Status

- Established under Article 124 of the Constitution.  

- Functions as the guardian of the Constitution and the final appellate authority.  

- Has Original, Appellate, and Advisory Jurisdiction.  

- Ensures fundamental rights are protected and laws follow constitutional principles.  

2. Organization of the Supreme Court

Number of Judges  

- Originally 1 Chief Justice of India (CJI) + 7 Judges.  

- Now, it has 34 Judges (including the CJI) after the 2019 amendment.  

3. Appointment of Supreme Court Judges

Chief Justice of India (CJI) Appointment 

- Appointed by the President of India.  

- The President consults Supreme Court Judges and usually follows the seniority principle.  

Other Judges Appointment  

- Appointed by the President based on the recommendation of the Collegium system (CJI + 4 senior-most judges of the Supreme Court).  

- The recommendation is forwarded to the President by the Union Law Ministry.  

4. Qualifications for Supreme Court Judges 

As per Article 124(3), a person must:  

1. Be a citizen of India.  

2. Have served as a Judge of a High Court for at least 5 years, OR  

3. Have practiced as an Advocate in a High Court for at least 10 years, OR  

4. Be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.  

5. Term and Retirement

- Supreme Court Judges retire at the age of 65 years (Article 124(2)).  

- There is no fixed term, and they serve until retirement or removal.  

6. Impeachment (Removal of Judges)

- Supreme Court Judges can only be removed by impeachment under Article 124(4).  

- Grounds for removal: Proven misbehavior or incapacity.  

- Process:  

  1. A motion must be signed by 100 Lok Sabha or 50 Rajya Sabha members.  

  2. The motion is investigated by a 3-member committee (Supreme Court Judge, High Court Judge, and a jurist).  

  3. If found guilty, both Houses of Parliament must pass the motion by a special majority.  

  4. The President then issues an order for removal.  

- No Supreme Court Judge has been impeached so far.  

7. Salary and Remuneration 

- Chief Justice of India: ₹2,80,000 per month  

- Other Supreme Court Judges: ₹2,50,000 per month  

- Additional Perks: Free accommodation, allowances, pension after retirement.  

(Salaries are revised periodically by the Parliament.)  

8. Immunities and Privileges  

- Complete judicial independence (no interference from the Executive or Legislature).  

- Cannot be criticized for their decisions in Parliament (Article 121).  

- Judges are not liable for their official acts in court proceedings.  

The Supreme Court plays a crucial role in upholding constitutional values and delivering justice. 

Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India

The Supreme Court of India has wide-ranging powers under the Constitution of India (Articles 124-147). Its jurisdiction can be classified into the following categories:  

1. Original Jurisdiction (Article 131) 

- The Supreme Court has the power to hear cases that originate directly in the Supreme Court.  

- It deals with disputes between: 

  1.1. Government of India and one or more States  

  2.2. Two or more States 

  3.3. Government of India and one or more States on one side, and other States on the other side  

- Example: Disputes over river water sharing (e.g., Cauvery Water Dispute).  

2. Appellate Jurisdiction (Articles 132-136) 

The Supreme Court hears appeals against judgments of High Courts, Tribunals, and other courts in the following cases:  

2.1. Constitutional Cases (Article 132)

- If a case involves a substantial question of law related to the interpretation of the Constitution.  

2.2. Civil Cases (Article 133) 

- Appeals in civil cases where a High Court certifies that the case involves a substantial question of law.  

2.3. Criminal Cases (Article 134)  

- Appeals in criminal cases where:  

  I. A High Court reverses an acquittal into a death sentence.  

  II. The High Court certifies the case as fit for appeal.  

2.4. Special Leave Petition (SLP) (Article 136)

- The Supreme Court can hear appeals from any judgment or order from any court or tribunal (except military tribunals).  

- This is discretionary and the Court may refuse to hear the case.  

3. Writ Jurisdiction (Article 32) 

- The Supreme Court has the power to issue writs for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights.  

- The five types of writs:  

  3.1. Habeas Corpus – Release of an unlawfully detained person.  

  3.2. Mandamus – Order directing a public official to perform legal duties.  

  3.3. Prohibition – Prevents lower courts from exceeding their jurisdiction.  

  3.4. Certiorari– Transfers cases from lower courts to a higher authority.  

  3.5. Quo Warranto– Challenges a person's right to hold public office.  

- This makes the Supreme Court the protector of Fundamental Rights.  

4. Advisory Jurisdiction (Article 143)  

- The President of India can seek the opinion of the Supreme Court on any important constitutional or legal matter.  

- The Court's advice is not binding.  

- Example: The Ayodhya land dispute was referred to the Supreme Court for advisory opinion.  

5. Review Jurisdiction (Article 137)

- The Supreme Court can review its own judgments if there is an error or new evidence.  

- The review petition must be filed within 30 days of the judgment.  

- Example: The Kesavananda Bharati case was reviewed in later cases to refine the "Basic Structure Doctrine."  

6. Special Powers and Miscellaneous Jurisdiction  

- Contempt of Court (Article 129): The Supreme Court can punish for contempt (disrespecting the court).  

- Power to Transfer Cases (Article 139A): Can transfer cases from one High Court to another.  

- Election Disputes (Article 71): Can hear disputes related to the President and Vice President's election.  

Conclusion 

The Supreme Court of India is not just an appellate body but also a guardian of the Constitution. Its wide jurisdiction ensures justice, constitutional supremacy, and legal uniformity across the country.  

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High Court of India

The High Court is the highest judicial authority at the state level and functions under Part VI, Chapter V (Articles 214-231) of the Indian Constitution.  

1. Constitutional Status  

- Established under Article 214, which mandates a High Court for each state (or a common High Court for multiple states/UTs).  

- Functions as the guardian of fundamental rights at the state level.  

- Acts as an appellate and supervisory authority over subordinate courts.  

2. Organization of the High Court  

Number of High Courts in India

- As of now, there are 25 High Courts in Indi

- Some High Courts serve multiple states (e.g., Punjab & Haryana HC).  

Composition of High Court 

- Chief Justice of the High Court  

- Other Judges (Number varies for each state), determined by the President based on workload.  

3. Appointment of High Court Judges  

Chief Justice of High Court  

- Appointed by the President of India.  

- The Collegium System recommends names (comprising CJI and senior Supreme Court Judges).  

- The President consults the lGovernor of the concerned state and the Chief Justice of India (CJI).  

Other High Court Judges Appointment  

- Appointed by the President based on the recommendation of:  

  1. Collegium System (CJI + 2 senior SC judges).  

  2. Consultation with Governor of the State and Chief Justice of the High Court.  

4. Qualifications for High Court Judges (Article 217)

A person must:  

1. Be a citizen of India.  

2. Have served as a judge in a subordinate court for at least 10 years, OR  

3. Have practiced as an advocate in a High Court for at least 10 years.  

5. Term and Retirement 

- Retirement Age: 62 years (Article 217(1)).  

- No fixed term; serves until retirement or removal.  

6. Impeachment (Removal of High Court Judges) (Article 217(1)(b))  

- Can be removed by the President on grounds of proven misbehavior or incapacity.  

- The process is the same as Supreme Court judges:  

  6.1. A motion signed by 50 Rajya Sabha or 100 Lok Sabha members.  

  6.2. Investigated by a three-member committee.  

  6.3. If found guilty, both Houses of Parliament must pass the motion by a special majority.  

  6.4. The President issues an order for removal.  

No High Court Judge has been impeached so far.  

7. Salary and Remuneration  

- Chief Justice of High Court: ₹2,50,000 per month.  

- Other High Court Judges: ₹2,25,000 per month.  

- Additional Perks: Free housing, allowances, post-retirement pension.  

(Salaries are revised periodically by Parliament.)  

8. Immunities and Privileges 

- Judicial Independence – Free from executive or legislative interference.  

- Protection from Criticism – Cannot be questioned in Parliament (Article 211).  

- Not Liable for Decisions – Judges are immune from legal proceedings for acts done in official capacity.  

Conclusion  

The High Courts play a crucial role in maintaining law and order at the state level, ensuring justice and constitutional supremacy. They serve as intermediate appellate courts between the Supreme Court and subordinate courts.  

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Judicial Review 

- Judicial Review is the power of the judiciary to examine the constitutionality of laws, executive orders, and government actions.  

- If any law or action violates the Constitution of India, the judiciary can declare it null and void.  

- It ensures the supremacy of the Constitution and protects Fundamental Rights.  

Meaning and Definition  

- Black’s Law Dictionary: Judicial Review is the power of a court to review laws or actions to determine their constitutionality.  

- Justice Syed Shah Mohamed Quadri: "Judicial Review is the process by which the judiciary examines the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative arms of government to ensure they conform to the Constitution."  

Constitutional Basis of Judicial Review in India 

Unlike the U.S. Constitution, the Indian Constitution does not explicitly mention ‘Judicial Review’, but it is implied through various Articles: 

Types of Judicial Review

Judicial Review in India can be classified into three types:  

1. Judicial Review of Legislative Actions  

- The judiciary reviews laws passed by Parliament and State Legislatures.  

- Ensures that laws do not violate Fundamental Rights or go beyond the powers granted by the Constitution.  

- Example: Golaknath Case (1967)– Supreme Court ruled that Parliament cannot amend Fundamental Rights.  

2. Judicial Review of Executive Actions  

- Examines actions, policies, and decisions of the government, President, Prime Minister, Governor, and Bureaucracy.  

- Prevents abuse of power and ensures actions follow the law.  

- Example: Maneka Gandhi Case (1978)– Passport was impounded arbitrarily; SC ruled that it violated Article 21 (Right to Life and Liberty).  

3. Judicial Review of Constitutional Amendments  

- The Supreme Court can review and strike down constitutional amendments if they violate the ‘Basic Structure’ of the Constitution.  

- Example: Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973)– Established the Basic Structure Doctrine, restricting Parliament’s power to amend the Constitution.  

Importance of Judicial Review

- Ensures Constitutional Supremacy – No law can override the Constitution.  

- Protects Fundamental Rights – Strikes down laws violating rights.  

- Maintains Separation of Powers– Prevents misuse of power by Legislature or Executive.  

- Strengthens Democracy– Ensures rule of law and fairness.  

Limitations of Judicial Review  

I. Cannot be exercised on purely political matters.  

II. Parliamentary Sovereignty– Parliament can amend laws to overcome court rulings.  

III. No advisory role– Courts cannot review laws before they are enacted.  

IV. Judicial Overreach Risk – Excessive judicial interference in executive matters. 

Conclusion

Judicial Review is a fundamental feature of the Indian Constitution that ensures laws conform to constitutional principles. While it protects democracy, fundamental rights, and the rule of law, it must be exercised carefully to avoid judicial overreach.  

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JUDICIAL ACTIVISM

- Judicial Activism refers to the proactive role of the judiciary in interpreting laws to uphold justice, protect Fundamental Rights, and ensure good governance.  

- It occurs when courts go beyond traditional interpretation and make decisions that shape public policy and administration.  

- Often used when the executive and legislature fail to act in public interest.  

Meaning and Definition 

- Black’s Law Dictionary: Judicial Activism is the philosophy that courts can and should go beyond the applicable law to consider broader societal implications.  

- Justice J.S. Verma: "Judicial Activism is necessary to ensure the protection of Fundamental Rights and uphold constitutional morality."  

Constitutional Basis of Judicial Activism in India

Though not explicitly mentioned, Judicial Activism is derived from several constitutional provisions:  

Evolution of Judicial Activism in India

1. Early Phase (1950s-1970s)

- Courts followed a strict interpretation of the Constitution.  

- Example: A.K. Gopalan Case (1950) – SC ruled that Article 21 only protected legal procedures, not fairness.  

2. Expansion Phase (1970s-1990s)

- Judiciary became more proactive in protecting rights.  

- Example: Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973)– Introduced Basic Structure Doctrine to prevent unconstitutional amendments.  

3. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) Era (1980s-Present)  

- Introduction of PILs allowed any citizen or NGO to file a case in public interest.  

- Example: S.P. Gupta v. Union of India (1981) – Expanded the scope of PILs.  

Methods of Judicial Activism

1. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) 

- Anyone (not just the affected party) can approach the court for public interest.  

- Example: Vishaka Case (1997)– Led to guidelines on sexual harassment at workplaces.  

2. Expanding Fundamental Rights 

- Courts interpret Fundamental Rights broadly to cover new issues.  

- Example: K.S. Puttaswamy Case (2017) – Declared Right to Privacy as a Fundamental Right.  

3. Judicial Interpretation 

- Courts interpret laws based on changing social needs.  

- Example: Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018) – Decriminalized Section 377 (homosexuality).  

4. Supervising Executive Actions 

- Courts intervene when governments fail to act.  

- Example: Taj Mahal Pollution Case– SC ordered industries to shift to protect heritage sites.  

5. Policy Directives (Judicial Legislation) 

- Courts issue guidelines in areas where laws are absent.  

- Example: Vishaka Guidelines (1997)– Created the first sexual harassment law in India.  

Judicial Review vs. Judicial Activism 

Advantages of Judicial Activism 

1. Protects Fundamental Rights – Expands scope of rights like Privacy, Environment, and Free Speech.  

2. Bridges Gaps in Law– Helps in areas where legislature fails to act.  

3. Promotes Good Governance– Ensures accountability of executive and legislature.  

4. Empowers Citizens – PILs allow common people to seek justice.  

5. Strengthens Democracy – Prevents misuse of power by government.  

Criticism of Judicial Activism  

1. Violates Separation of Powers– Judiciary interferes with executive and legislature.  

2. Judicial Overreach – Courts act as law-makers, bypassing elected representatives.  

3. Subjective Interpretation– No fixed criteria for judicial activism.  

4. Delays in Judiciary – Courts should focus on pending cases, not governance.  

5. Threat to Parliamentary Sovereignty – Unelected judges override elected representatives.  

Recent Trends in Judicial Activism 

1. SC's Role in COVID-19 Management (2020-21)– Ordered oxygen supply regulation and vaccine pricing transparency.  

2. Ban on Firecrackers in Delhi (2018)– Imposed due to rising air pollution.  

3. Decriminalization of Adultery (2018) – Struck down Section 497 IPC as unconstitutional.  

Conclusion  

Judicial Activism is necessary to uphold justice, constitutional morality, and human rights. However, courts must balance activism with judicial restraint to prevent overreach and maintain separation of powers.  

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LOK ADALATS

- Lok Adalat (People’s Court) is an alternative dispute resolution (ADR) system in India.  

- It provides a speedy, cost-effective, and informal mechanism to resolve disputes outside regular courts.  

- Lok Adalats function under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 and aim to reduce the burden on courts by settling cases through compromise and mutual agreement.  

Meaning and Definition  

- Lok Adalat means "People’s Court" where disputes are settled through conciliation and mediation.  

- It follows the principle of ‘Nyaya Panchayat’ and provides justice at the grassroots level.  

- Justice P.N. Bhagwati: Lok Adalats ensure justice reaches the poor and disadvantaged in a simple and accessible manner.  

Constitutional and Legal Provisions

Objectives of Lok Adalat 

1. Quick and cheap justice – Reduces case backlog.  

2. Accessible to all– Especially beneficial for poor and marginalized.  

3. Mutual settlement – Encourages compromise and reconciliation.  

4. Reduces burden on courts– Helps in speedy disposal of cases.  

5. Informal procedure– No strict legal formalities, making it easy for common people.  

Composition of Lok Adalat

Each Lok Adalat consists of:  

1. A sitting or retired judicial officer (as the chairperson).  

2. A lawyer (advocate).  

3. A social worker.  

Types of Lok Adalats 

1. Permanent Lok Adalat (PLA)  

- Deals with public utility services like transport, postal, and telecommunication disputes.  

- Established under Section 22B of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.  

- Example: Disputes related to electricity bills, water supply, transport services.  

2. Mobile Lok Adalat

- Travels to rural areas and remote villages to provide justice.  

- Helps settle disputes locally and quickly.  

3. National Lok Adalat  

- Conducted at regular intervals across India on specific dates.  

- Cases related to bank recovery, motor accident claims, matrimonial disputes, criminal compoundable offenses, etc. are settled.  

4. State and District Lok Adalats  

- Organized by State and District Legal Services Authorities.  

- Focuses on local and regional disputes.  

Jurisdiction of Lok Adalats

- Can settle civil, criminal (compoundable), and family disputes.  

- Handles cases related to:  

  1. Motor Accident Claims 

  2. Land and property disputes  

  3. Bank loan recoveries

  4. Labor disputes  

  5. Public utility services dispute 

Limitations 

- Cannot handle non-compoundable criminal cases (like murder, rape, terrorism).  

- Cannot impose punishments; only settles through compromise.  

Advantages of Lok Adalats

1. Speedy Justice– Cases are settled on the spot.  

2. Cost-Effective – No court fees; minimal expenses.  

3. Informal Procedure – No need for lawyers or legal technicalities.  

4. Reduces Court Burden – Helps in clearing pending cases.  

5. Mutual Agreement – Both parties agree voluntarily, avoiding lengthy trials.  

Limitations of Lok Adalats 

1. Decisions require consent – If one party refuses, the case goes back to regular court.  

2. No strict legal enforcement – Decisions are based on compromise, not strict law.  

3. Limited Jurisdiction– Cannot handle serious criminal cases.  

4. Lack of Awareness – Many people, especially in rural areas, do not know about Lok Adalats.  

Recent Trends and Developments 

- Digital Lok Adalats introduced during COVID-19 pandemic to handle cases online.  

- Lok Adalats resolved over 1 crore cases in a single day (National Lok Adalat, 2021).  

- Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to identify cases suitable for settlement.  

Conclusion

Lok Adalats are an important pillar of justice delivery in India, ensuring quick and fair resolution of disputes. They play a key role in reducing court congestion and promoting access to justice for all.  

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Public Interest Litigation (PIL)a

- Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is a legal tool that allows any individual or group to file a case in the interest of the general public.  

- It helps protect Fundamental Rights and promotes social justice.  

- Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India was pioneered by Justice P.N. Bhagwati and Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

Meaning and Definition 

- Justice P.N. Bhagwati: PIL is a process to bring justice to the reach of the poor and oppressed.  

- Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer: PIL is a tool to ensure access to justice for disadvantaged people.  

- PIL allows any person, NGO, or association to file a case in the public interest, even if they are not directly affected.  

Constitutional and Legal Basis of PIL 

Objectives of PIL 

1. Access to Justice for All – Helps the poor, marginalized, and disadvantaged groups.  

2. Judicial Check on Government Actions – Prevents misuse of power by public officials.  

3. Protection of Fundamental Rights– Ensures rights under Articles 14, 19, and 21.  

4. Environmental Protection – Addresses pollution, deforestation, and public health issues.  

5. Accountability in Governance – Ensures transparency and good governance.  

Who Can File a PIL? 

- Any individual, NGO, or social group (even if not directly affected).  

- Courts themselves (Suo Moto PILs)– When the court takes up a case on its own.  

Who Cannot File a PIL? 

- A person with a personal interest (should not be for private gain).  

- Frivolous or politically motivated petitions (Courts can impose fines for fake PILs).  

Scope and Areas Covered by PIL  

1. Environmental Protection – Example: MC Mehta v. Union of India (Taj Mahal Pollution Case).  

2. Human Rights Violations – Example: Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration (Prisoner’s Rights Case).  

3. Consumer Rights – Example: Medical negligence and misleading advertisements.  

4. Corruption and Misuse of Power– Example: Hawala Scam Case (Vineet Narain v. Union of India).  

5. Women’s Rights and Child Welfare – Example: Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (Sexual Harassment at Workplace).  

Procedure to File a PIL 

1. Draft a petition– Clearly state the issue and how it affects public interest.  

2. Submit the petition– File in Supreme Court (under Article 32) or High Court (under Article 226).  

3. Hearing and Arguments – Court may accept or reject the PIL.  

4. Court Decision and Orders– If accepted, the court issues directives to concerned authorities.  

Advantages of PIL 

1. Easy and Affordable Justice– No need for expensive lawyers.  

2. Empowers Common Citizens – Any person can file a PIL in public interest.  

3. Speedy Remedy for Social Issues – Court intervention leads to quick action.  

4. Judicial Check on Government Actions– Prevents misuse of power.  

5. Enhances Awareness– Brings social issues to public attention.  

Criticism and Misuse of PIL  

1. Frivolous and Motivated PILs – Some people misuse PILs for personal or political gain.  

2. Judicial Overreach – Courts sometimes interfere with policy matters meant for the government.  

3. Delays in Courts– Many PILs increase judicial workload and cause case backlogs.  

4. Lack of Proper Implementation– Court orders are not always enforced effectively.  

Recent Trends in PILs

- Digital and Online PILs – During COVID-19, courts accepted virtual PILs.  

- Environmental PILs – Rising focus on climate change and pollution.  

- Economic and Financial PILs – Addressing issues like bank frauds and demonetization effects.  

Judicial Guidelines to Prevent PIL Misuse  

- SC in State of Uttaranchal v. Balwant Singh Chaufal (2010) – Directed that PILs should be filed only in public interest, not for private gain.  

- SC imposes fines on Frivolous PILs– Example: Rs. 50,000 fine on misuse of PIL in 2019.  

Conclusion

PIL has played a crucial role in protecting rights, ensuring social justice, and promoting good governance. However, courts must filter out fake PILs to prevent misuse and ensure that PILs serve their true purpose – justice for the public.  

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National Green Tribunal (NGT)  

- The National Green Tribunal (NGT) is a specialized judicial body in India that deals with environmental issues and disputes.  

- It was established on 18th October 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010.  

- NGT ensures the effective and speedy disposal of cases related to environmental protection and conservation.  

Need for NGT 

- Growing environmental issues like pollution, deforestation, and industrial waste.  

- Slow disposal of environmental cases in regular courts.  

- Need for specialized expertise in environmental laws.  

- To implement and enforce international environmental agreements signed by India.  

Powers and Jurisdiction of NGT  

1. Original Jurisdiction 

- Can hear cases related to environmental protection and violations of environmental laws.  

2. Appellate Jurisdiction 

- Can review decisions made by government agencies related to environmental clearance.  

3. Enforcement of Environmental Laws  

- Deals with laws such as:  

  1. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 

  2. Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981  

  3. Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 

  4.Forest Conservation Act, 1980  

  5. Biological Diversity Act, 2002  

 Significance of NGT 

1. Speedy disposal of cases (within 6 months).  

2. Expert-based decisions on environmental issues.  

3. Strict enforcement of environmental laws.  

4. Reduced burden on regular courts.  

Challenges Faced by NGT

1. Limited jurisdiction – Cannot hear cases under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and Indian Forest Act, 1927.  

2. Implementation issues – Government agencies often fail to implement NGT orders.  

3. Lack of resources– Needs more judges and expert members.  

4. Frequent challenges to its orders in the Supreme Court.  

Conclusion 

NGT plays a crucial role in environmental protection and ensuring sustainable development in India. Strengthening its powers and enforcing its decisions effectively can further enhance its impact.