By Dr. Farzeen  Unit:1- Nature of Political Democracy in India ----------------------------------------------- Democracy and the Indian Democratic Framework    Origin and Meaning   -Origin:     - The term " democracy " is derived from the Greek words demos  (people) and kratos  (rule), meaning "rule by the people."     - First practiced in Ancient Greece , particularly in Athens , as a direct democracy.   - Meaning:     - Democracy is a form of government  where power is vested in the people, exercised either directly or through elected representatives.     - Abraham Lincoln’s definition:  “Democracy is the government of the people, by the people, for the people.”   Different Conceptions of Democracy  1. Liberal Democracy:     - Based on free and fair elections, rule of law, individual rights, and multi-party competition.     ...

By Dr. Farzeen Bano Unit: Indian Judicial System: Judicial Review and Judicial Activism -----------------------------------------------------------------  The Indian Judiciary  is an independent and hierarchical system responsible for interpreting and applying laws. It operates under the Constitution of India  and follows a three-tier structure: 1. Supreme Court of India (Apex Court)   - Established : 1950   - Head : Chief Justice of India (CJI)   - Jurisdiction : Original, Appellate, and Advisory   - Key Functions:     - Interprets the Constitution     - Hears appeals from High Courts and Tribunals     - Protects Fundamental Rights (under Article 32)     - Advises the President on legal matters (under Article 143)   2. High Courts (State-Level Courts)   - Number : 25 High Courts (as of now)   - Jurisdiction : State(s) or Union Territory(ies)...

By  Dr. Farzeen Unit- V: Contemporary Feminist Perspective on Class ----------------------------------------------- समकालीन नारीवादी दृष्टिकोण और वर्ग (Contemporary Feminist Perspective on Class)   समकालीन नारीवादी दृष्टिकोण इस विचार को प्रस्तुत करता है कि वर्ग (class) और लिंग (gender) का उत्पीड़न आपस में गहराई से जुड़ा हुआ है। यह तर्क दिया जाता है कि पूँजीवाद (Capitalism) और पितृसत्ता (Patriarchy) एक-दूसरे को सुदृढ़ करते हैं, जिससे महिलाओं, विशेष रूप से हाशिए के समुदायों की महिलाओं के लिए विशेष प्रकार के शोषण और असमानता उत्पन्न होती है।   अंतर-संबंधित दृष्टिकोण (Intersectional Approach)  आधुनिक नारीवादी सिद्धांत अंतर्संबंधित दृष्टिकोण (Intersectional Approach) पर बल देता है, जो यह स्वीकार करता है कि जाति, वर्ग, लैंगिक पहचान, यौनिकता और अन्य सामाजिक श्रेणियाँ आपस में मिलकर विभिन्न प्रकार के उत्पीड़न और विशेषाधिकारों को जन्म देती हैं।   पारंपरिक वर्गीय विश्लेषण को चुनौती (Challenging Traditional Class Analysis)  पारंपरिक मार्क्सवादी वर्गीय विश...

 By Dr. Farzeen Bano Unit-III: U. S. A. (America): Historical Background, Main Features, Executive (President), Judiciary and Judicial Review, Legislature (Congress), Separation of Power and Theory of Check and Balance ------------------------------------------------------------------------  HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN CONSTITUTION The American Constitution, it is the supreme law of the United States. It established the framework of government and the rights of citizens.  The American Constitution was enacted on September 17, 1787, when it was signed by the delegates at the Philadelphia Convention . However, it officially came into effect on March 4, 1789 , after being ratified by the required number of states. The journey of the American Constitution can be divided into the following stages: 1. Colonial Background   - The United States was originally composed of 13 British colonies along the eastern coast of North America.   - British policies, including...