B. A. 1st Sem, Political Science (Major), Unit:5, Citizenship, Political System, Monarchy, Aristocracy, Authoritarianism, Totalitarianism & Military Dictatorship & Democracy)

 By Dr. Farzeen 

Unit-5: Citizenship, Political System, Monarchy, Aristocracy, Authoritarianism, Totalitarianism & Military Dictatorship & Democracy

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📘 CLASS NOTES: Concept of Citizenship (Based on O.P. Gauba)

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1. Meaning of Citizenship

O.P. Gauba explains that citizenship is a legal and political relationship between an individual and the state.
A citizen is a full and permanent member of the state, enjoying rights and carrying duties.

Simple Meaning:

Citizenship means belonging to a state, enjoying protection and rights from the state, and performing duties toward it.

Example:

A person born in India, who holds an Indian passport, votes in elections, pays taxes, and enjoys constitutional rights is an Indian citizen.

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2. Definitions of Citizenship

O.P. Gauba:

Citizenship refers to a bundle of rights and obligations that define the individual’s role and status in the state.

T.H. Marshall (important for exams):

Citizenship is composed of three rights:

1. Civil rights (freedom, equality)

2. Political rights (right to vote)

3. Social rights (education, welfare)

Aristotle:

A citizen is one who shares in the administration of justice and participation in governance.

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3. Features of Citizenship (From O.P. Gauba)

1. Legal Status

   • Citizenship is granted by law (Constitution, Acts).

   • Ex: Citizenship Act of India, 1955.

2. Political Membership

   • A citizen belongs to a political community (State).

3. Bundle of Rights

   • Civil, political, and social rights.

4. Duties and Obligations

   • Loyalty, obedience to law, paying taxes.

5. Equality of Status

   • Every citizen is equal before law.

6. Active Participation

   • Citizens participate in public affairs, elections, public opinion.

7. Non-transferable Status

   • Citizenship cannot be exchanged like property.

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4. Types of Citizenship

(A) Natural or Birth Citizenship

Citizenship by birth.
Example: A child born in India to Indian parents.

(B) Acquired Citizenship (Gauba)

Citizenship acquired through law:

1. By Descent – through parents

2. By Registration – marriage or residency

3. By Naturalization – living in a country for a specific time, fulfilling conditions

4. By Incorporation of Territory – when a region becomes part of a new country

   • Example: Residents of Pondicherry became Indian citizens in 1962.

(C) Single Citizenship

India provides single citizenship (one citizenship for the whole country).

(D) Dual Citizenship

Some countries (USA) allow dual citizenship.
India does not allow full dual citizenship.

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5. Elements of Citizenship (Gauba)

O.P. Gauba highlights the three main elements:

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1. Citizens as Legal Members

Individuals who are legally recognized by the state.

Example:

A person with an Indian passport is legally a citizen.

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2. Rights of Citizenship

Gauba aligns with Marshall’s classification:

A. Civil Rights

• Right to equality

• Right to freedom

• Right to property, contract, justice

Example: Using freedom of speech to criticize government policies peacefully.

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B. Political Rights

• Right to vote

• Right to contest elections

• Right to hold public office

Example: Casting votes in Lok Sabha elections.

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C. Social and Economic Rights

• Right to education

• Right to health

• Social security and welfare

Example: Using free school education under the RTE Act.

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3. Duties and Obligations of Citizens

• Obey the Constitution

• Respect national symbols

• Pay taxes

• Protect public property

• Promote harmony

• Defend the country (when required)

Example: Not damaging public buses during protests (protecting public property).

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6. Difference Between Citizen and Non-Citizen

Citizen	Non-Citizen
Has full legal status	Limited rights
Can vote	Cannot vote
Can hold public office	Cannot hold office
Full protection from state	Partial protection
Has duties (taxes, loyalty)	Fewer obligations

Example:

Foreign students in India (non-citizens) cannot vote.

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7. Active and Passive Citizenship (Gauba’s reference to political theory)

Active Citizen

Participates in politics, voting, social welfare.
Example: A citizen who attends local meetings, votes regularly.

Passive Citizen

Enjoys rights but does not actively participate.
Example: A person who does not vote.

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8. Modern Trends in Citizenship (Gauba)

1. Global / Cosmopolitan Citizenship

Citizens feel responsibility not just to their nation but to the world.
Example: Climate activism, global human rights activism.

2. Digital Citizenship

New responsibilities and rights in the digital world.
Example: Respectful online behaviour, avoiding cybercrime.

3. Multicultural Citizenship

Recognizes diversity of cultures.
Example: Protection of minority rights in India.

4. Post-national Citizenship

Rights extend beyond national borders through international bodies.
Example: Human rights under the United Nations.

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9. Citizenship in India (Gauba’s Application)

Constitutional Provisions (Articles 5–11)

• Describes who is a citizen at the commencement of the Constitution.

Citizenship Act, 1955

Covers:

• Birth

• Descent

• Registration

• Naturalization

• Incorporation of territory

Recent Amendments (CAA 2019)

Fast-track citizenship for persecuted minorities from neighbouring countries.

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An NRI child born abroad to Indian parents → Citizen by Descent

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📘 CLASS NOTES: POLITICAL SYSTEM

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1. Meaning of Political System

The term Political System refers to the set of institutions, processes, values, and structures through which a society makes authoritative decisions and allocates resources.

Simple Meaning:

Political system is how power operates in a society to make rules and implement them.

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2. Definitions (Authentic Sources)

(1) David Easton (Most Important)

Political system is the “authoritative allocation of values for a society.”
→ It means: deciding who gets what, when and how, through legitimate authority.

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(2) Gabriel Almond

A political system is a system of interactions performing political functions (input, conversion, output).

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(3) O.P. Gauba

Political system is a subset of the social system:
→ It deals with power, authority, decision-making, governance, and conflict resolution.

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(4) Andrew Heywood

A political system refers to the formal and informal arrangements through which political decisions are made.

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(5) UNESCO/UN Definition

The political system consists of state institutions, laws, processes of representation, and the participation of citizens.

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3. Characteristics / Features of a Political System

Based on Almond, Easton, and Gauba:

1. Interrelated Structures

   • Legislature, executive, judiciary, political parties, pressure groups.

2. Input and Output Processes

   • People give demands/input → Government responds/output.

3. Legitimate Authority

   • Decisions backed by law and accepted by people.

4. Goal Attainment & Policy Making

   • System works to achieve social goals (security, welfare).

5. Adaptation to Environment

   • Responds to economic, social, and technological changes.

6. Control and Integration

   • Maintains order and unity in society.

7. Dealing with Conflicts

   • Through laws, courts, dialogues, elections.

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4. Components of Political System

1. Political Structures (Institutions)

• Legislature

• Executive

• Judiciary

• Bureaucracy

• Political parties

• Election Commission

• Local governments

2. Political Processes

• Elections

• Public opinion

• Policy-making

• Law-making

• Political communication

• Pressure group activities

3. Political Culture

• Beliefs, values, attitudes of people towards politics
  (Almond’s civic culture theory)

4. Political Behavior

• Voting behaviour

• Participation

• Leadership

• Protest movements

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5. Easton’s Input–Output Model (System Theory)

(MOST IMPORTANT for exams)

          INPUTS
   (Demands + Support)
        ↓
     Political System
        ↓
       OUTPUTS
 (Policies + Decisions)
        ↓
     FEEDBACK

Explanation:

• Inputs: Demands and support from society
  (e.g., demand for jobs, protests, voting)

• Conversion: Government processes inputs
  (policy-making)

• Outputs: Laws, schemes, policies

• Feedback: People react to policies → new demands arise

Example:

Demand for women's safety → Government passes Nirbhaya Act → People respond → Further amendments.

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6. Almond’s Structural-Functional Approach

Almond says every political system performs seven functions.

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I. Input Functions

1. Political Socialization & Recruitment
   (Family, schools, media)

2. Interest Articulation
   (Pressure groups, protests)

3. Interest Aggregation
   (Political parties combine demands)

4. Political Communication
   (Media, internet)

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II. Output Functions

5. Rule Making
   (Legislature)

6. Rule Application
   (Executive)

7. Rule Adjudication
   (Judiciary)

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Example in India:

• Parliament → makes laws

• Government ministries → implement laws

• Supreme Court → interprets laws

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7. Types of Political Systems

1. Democratic Political System

• Free elections

• Rule of law

• Civil liberties

• Example: India, UK

2. Authoritarian Political System

• Concentration of power

• Limited political freedom

• Example: China

3. Totalitarian System

• State controls all aspects: economy, culture, society

• Example: North Korea, Nazi Germany

4. Traditional / Monarchic System

• Power through hereditary rulers

• Example: Saudi Arabia

5. Hybrid Political Systems

• Mix of democratic norms + authoritarian control

• Example: Russia, Turkey

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8. Difference Between Political System and Government

Political System	Government
Larger concept	Part of political system
Institutions + culture + behavior	Only executive/administration
Continuous	Temporary
Includes parties, elections, media	Only elected leaders & bureaucracy

Example:

India’s political system = Constitution, parties, Parliament, culture.
India’s government = Current PM, ministers.

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9. Functions of a Political System (Gauba + Almond)

1. Maintaining law and order

2. Allocating resources (budget)

3. Achieving national goals

4. Public welfare

5. Resolving conflicts

6. Ensuring justice and equality

7. Protecting borders

8. Political recruitment and leadership

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10. Political System and State – Difference

State	Political System
Legal–sovereign entity	Operational mechanism
Territory, population, government	Structures & processes
Permanent	Flexible and changing
Juridical concept	Behavioural concept

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11. Political System in India (Application)

• Type: Parliamentary democratic system

• Features:

  • Federal system

  • Universal adult franchise

  • Multi-party system

  • Independent judiciary

  • Fundamental rights

  • Constitutional supremacy

  • Active civil society

Example:

Elections every five years maintain political stability.

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12. Contemporary Changes in Political Systems

1. Globalization

   • International organizations influence domestic politics.

2. Digital Politics

   • Social media shaping opinion (Twitter, WhatsApp groups)

3. Rise of Populism

   • Charismatic leaders influencing voters.

4. Identity Politics

   • Caste, gender, ethnicity influencing democracy.

5. AI in Politics

   • Data-driven campaigns, e-governance.

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Below are complete, detailed class notes on Monarchy and Aristocracy, written in clear academic language and based on authentic sources:

• O.P. Gauba – Introduction to Political Theory

• Aristotle – Politics

• Plato – Republic

• Andrew Heywood – Politics

• Encyclopaedia Britannica

• Dahl, Lipset & Classical Political Philosophy

These notes are suitable for B.A./M.A. Political Science and for teaching class lectures.

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📘 CLASS NOTES: Monarchy and Aristocracy

(Meaning, Types, Features, Merits–Demerits, Modern Examples)

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PART – I : MONARCHY (राजतंत्र)

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1. Meaning of Monarchy

Monarchy is the form of government in which supreme authority is vested in a single individual, usually a king or queen, who rules by hereditary right.

Simple Meaning:

Power is in the hands of one ruler (monarch), generally from a royal family.

Sources:

• O.P. Gauba: Monarchy = rule by one person based on hereditary principles.

• Aristotle: Monarchy is the rule of one, aimed at common good (if corrupted → tyranny).

• Britannica: Monarchy is a political system based on hereditary succession and lifelong tenure.

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2. Characteristics of Monarchy

1. Single Person Rule – Central authority in one individual.

2. Hereditary Succession – Power passes to next generation.

3. Lifelong Tenure – Monarch remains leader until death/abdication.

4. Symbol of Unity and Tradition

5. Stability and Continuity – Government does not change frequently.

6. Divine Right Theory (Traditional) – Kings considered “appointed by God.”

7. Limited vs Unlimited Powers – Depends on type of monarchy.

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3. Types of Monarchy

(A) Absolute Monarchy (पूर्ण राजतंत्र)

Monarch has unlimited powers—legislative, executive, judicial.

Characteristics:

• No constitution limiting power

• No elected legislature

• No political parties

• Ruler’s decision = law

Examples:

Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Oman.

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(B) Constitutional Monarchy (संवैधानिक राजतंत्र)

Monarch acts as ceremonial head, but powers are limited by constitution, and real authority rests with elected government.

Characteristics:

• Parliament is sovereign

• Monarch is symbolic

• Rule of law

• Responsible government

Examples:

UK, Japan, Sweden, Denmark, Norway.

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4. Merits of Monarchy (Gauba + Heywood)

1. Stability and Continuity

   • No frequent change of leadership.

2. Quick decision-making

   • Suitable in emergencies.

3. National unity and identity

   • Monarchs symbolize cultural tradition.

4. Non-partisan ruler

   • Monarch rises above party politics.

5. Low political conflict in constitutional monarchy

   • Monarch does not compete for power.

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5. Demerits of Monarchy

1. Hereditary principle is undemocratic

2. Possibility of tyranny (Aristotle)

3. Lack of accountability

4. No guarantee of competent rulers

   • Incompetent kings may inherit power.

5. Citizens excluded from politics

   • Participation limited.

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6. Modern Examples

Absolute Monarchies:

• Saudi Arabia

• Qatar

• UAE (semi-absolute)

• Brunei

Constitutional Monarchies:

• United Kingdom

• Japan

• Spain

• Netherlands

• Sweden

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7. Aristotle’s View on Monarchy

Aristotle classified government of one person into:

• Monarchy → Rule of one for the common good

• Tyranny → Rule of one for self-interest

Thus, monarchy is good only when it serves the people.

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8. Monarchy in Political Theory

• Plato suggested “philosopher king” → form of ideal monarchy.

• Medieval Europe → monarchy based on divine right.

• Modern world → mostly constitutional monarchies after democratic revolutions.

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 PART – II : ARISTOCRACY (अभिजाततंत्र)

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1. Meaning of Aristocracy

Aristocracy means rule by the best (aristos = best, kratos = rule).
It is government by a small, privileged, educated, morally superior group.

Simple Meaning:

Power is concentrated in the hands of a few “best” persons.

Sources:

• Aristotle: Aristocracy is rule of the few for common good.

• Plato: Ideal state ruled by Guardians (philosophers).

• Gauba: Aristocracy is government by superior individuals who claim high moral and intellectual ability.

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2. Characteristics of Aristocracy

1. Rule of Few – Small elite group controls government.

2. Merit or Heredity – Historically based on noble birth; ideally based on merit.

3. Focus on Common Good (Aristotle)

4. Educated and Virtuous Rulers

5. Limited Political Participation

6. Hierarchy and Class Distinctions

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3. Difference between Aristocracy and Oligarchy

Aristocracy	Oligarchy
Rule of the morally superior	Rule of rich or powerful
Aimed at common good (virtue)	Aimed at self-interest
Based on moral merit	Based on wealth/influence
Ideal form (Aristotle)	Corrupt form

Aristotle’s Classification:

• Good form = Aristocracy

• Bad form = Oligarchy

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4. Forms of Aristocracy

(A) Traditional Aristocracy

• Based on birth, lineage, nobility

• Medieval European nobility

• Example: House of Lords (historically)

(B) Meritocratic Aristocracy

• Based on education, talent, virtue

• Plato’s “philosopher kings”

(C) Economic Aristocracy (Elitism)

• Rule by business elites, wealthy classes

• Example: Power of billionaires in policymaking (USA, Russia)

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5. Merits of Aristocracy

1. Competent and educated rulers

   • Decision-making by experts.

2. Stable government

3. Resistant to mob rule (Plato)

4. Focus on long-term policies

5. Promotes high moral and ethical values

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6. Demerits of Aristocracy

1. Undemocratic

   • Excludes majority from political participation.

2. Tendency toward oligarchy

3. Class privilege and inequality

4. Possibility of elitism and corruption

5. Disconnect from common people’s needs

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7. Aristotle on Aristocracy

Aristotle considered it:

• The best possible government after monarchy.

• Ruled by the virtuous few.

• Becomes corrupt and evil when rulers promote their own interests → Oligarchy.

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8. Examples of aristocracy (Historical and Modern)

Historical:

• Sparta (rule by elite warriors)

• Roman Senate (aristocratic class)

• Medieval European nobility

Modern Tendencies (not formal aristocracy):

• Elite bureaucracies

• Corporate aristocracy (economic elites)

• Ivy League political elite in the USA

• Upper House in UK (House of Lords, partially reformed)

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9. Comparison: Monarchy vs Aristocracy

Monarchy	Aristocracy
Rule by one	Rule by few
Hereditary	Birth OR merit
King/Queen	Noble/elite class
Can be absolute or constitutional	Usually traditional or meritocratic
Risk: tyranny	Risk: oligarchy
Quick decisions	More deliberative

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📘 CLASS NOTES

Authoritarianism, Totalitarianism & Military Dictatorship

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PART I — AUTHORITARIANISM (सत्तावाद)

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1. Meaning

Authoritarianism refers to a political system in which power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or small elite, political opposition is restricted, and citizens enjoy limited political freedoms.

✔️ However, unlike totalitarianism, authoritarian states do not try to control every aspect of life.

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2. Definitions (Authentic Sources)

(1) Juan Linz (Most Important)

Authoritarian regimes are characterized by:

• Limited political pluralism

• No elaborate ideology

• Limited political mobilization

• Power exercised by a leader/small group

(2) O.P. Gauba

Authoritarianism is a system where rulers do not tolerate political opposition and expect unquestioned obedience from citizens.

(3) Andrew Heywood

Authoritarianism = political rule based on obedience, order, strong executive, and restricted rights.

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3. Features of Authoritarianism

1. Concentration of Power
   One ruler / small group dominates state institutions.

2. Limited Political Pluralism
   Only controlled or approved parties exist.

3. No Constitutional Accountability
   Rulers are not answerable to people.

4. Suppression of Opposition
   Media censorship, arrest of critics.

5. No Political Ideology (Unlike Totalitarianism)
   Only desire is power and stability, not re-engineering society.

6. Low Political Mobilization
   Citizens encouraged to stay out of politics.

7. Controlled Judiciary & Military

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4. Types of Authoritarian Regimes (Juan Linz)

1. Bureaucratic-Military Authoritarianism

   • Seen in Latin America (Chile, Argentina)

2. Traditional Authoritarianism

   • Monarchies such as Saudi Arabia

3. Personalist Authoritarianism

   • Dictators like Idi Amin, Gaddafi

4. Single-Party Authoritarianism

   • China (one-party rule, not fully totalitarian today)

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5. Merits (As Claimed)

• Stability in unstable societies

• Quick decisions

• Economic reforms (e.g., China)

• Control over crime & unrest

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6. Demerits

• Violation of human rights

• No accountability

• Corruption

• No political freedom

• Possible military or family dictatorship

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7. Examples

• China (authoritarian single-party)

• Russia (competitive authoritarianism)

• Saudi Arabia (traditional authoritarian monarchy)

• Egypt (military-authoritarian)

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PART II — TOTALITARIANISM (सर्वसत्तावाद)

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1. Meaning

Totalitarianism is a system where state seeks control over all aspects of public and private life, using ideology, propaganda, terror, and centralized power.

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2. Definitions (Authentic Sources)

(1) Hannah Arendt

Totalitarianism is rule based on ideology + terror, aiming to control entire social life.

(2) Carl Friedrich & Z. Brzezinski

Totalitarian regimes have six characteristics:

1. Official ideology

2. Single mass party

3. Secret police

4. Monopolistic control over media

5. Weapons monopoly

6. Centralized command economy

(3) O.P. Gauba

Totalitarianism is political system where the state controls political, social, economic, and cultural life, demanding total obedience.

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3. Features of Totalitarianism

1. Single Ruling Party
   Usually led by a dictator.

2. Official Ideology
   Examples: Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism.

3. Mass Mobilization
   People are forced to participate in political rallies.

4. Total Control Over Society
   Education, media, culture, religion, family.

5. State Terror & Secret Police
   Nazi Gestapo, Soviet NKVD.

6. Propaganda State
   Control of media to manipulate public mind.

7. Command Economy
   State regulates all production and distribution.

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4. Merits (Rarely Claimed)

• National unity

• Rapid industrialization (example: USSR under Stalin)

• Strong central control in crisis

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5. Demerits

• Extreme violation of human rights

• No freedom of speech

• Mass killings

• No political participation

• Total loss of privacy and dignity

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6. Examples

• Nazi Germany (Hitler)

• Fascist Italy (Mussolini)

• Stalinist USSR

• North Korea (contemporary totalitarianism)

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7. Difference between Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism

Authoritarianism	Totalitarianism
Power in leader/elite	Power in leader + party
No dominant ideology	Strong ideology
Limited political control	Total control (public & private life)
Allow limited pluralism	No pluralism
Low mobilization	Mass mobilization
Repression restricted	Extreme terror
No attempt to mold citizens	Aim: create a new citizen

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PART III — MILITARY DICTATORSHIP (सैनिक तानाशाही)

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1. Meaning

Military dictatorship is a form of authoritarian rule where political power is controlled by the armed forces, either directly by a military leader or through a junta (military council).

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2. Definitions (Authentic Sources)

1. Samuel Huntington

Military regimes arise when the armed forces intervene to restore order in politically unstable states.

2. O.P. Gauba

Military dictatorship refers to government where military officers control decision-making, suspending constitution and civil liberties.

3. Britannica

Government by military rulers who seize power through a coup.

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3. Features

1. Military Coup – Power gained by overthrowing civilian government.

2. Martial Law – Constitution suspended; military courts functioning.

3. No Political Opposition

4. Centralized Power under a Military Chief
   (e.g., General, Commander)

5. Restriction of Civil Rights

6. Strong Role of Army in Policy Making

7. Promise of Temporary Rule
   — but usually long-lasting.

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4. Types

1. Junta Regime (power with military council)

2. Personal Military Dictatorship

3. Bureaucratic-Military Oligarchy

4. Revolutionary Military Regimes

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5. Merits (As Claimed)

• Restore law and order

• Control corruption

• Quick decisions

• Stability during crisis

• Protection from civil war

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6. Demerits

• No democracy

• Human rights violations

• Frequent coups → instability

• No accountability

• Military dominance weakens institutions

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7. Examples

Historical Examples

• Myanmar (Burma)

• Chile under General Pinochet

• Pakistan under Ayub Khan, Zia-ul-Haq, Musharraf

• Nigeria (1960–1999 periods)

• Egypt (military-backed leadership)

Recent Examples

• Thailand (military coup, 2014)

• Sudan (2021 coup)

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8. Difference: Authoritarian vs Military Dictatorship

Authoritarianism	Military Dictatorship
Power in civilian autocrat or elite	Power in military
Can have political party	No real party politics
Limited ideology	No ideology, only “law & order”
Police-led repression	Army-led repression
Controlled civilian institutions	Collapse of civilian govt

📘 CLASS NOTES: DEMOCRACY 1. Meaning of Democracy The word Democracy comes from the Greek terms: Demos = people Kratos = rule or authority Thus, democracy literally means "rule of the people." In simple terms, democracy is a political system where: The people hold supreme power, Government is formed by the people, and Rulers are accountable to the citizens. Example India is the world’s largest democracy where leaders are elected by universal adult franchise. Switzerland practices direct democratic tools like referendums. 2. Definitions of Democracy (a) Classical Definitions Abraham Lincoln “Democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people.” John Locke A system in which people choose their representatives and are governed through consent. J.S. Mill Democracy is a form of government that encourages the active participation of citizens. (b) Modern Definitions Joseph Schumpeter Democracy is an institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions through competitive elections. Robert Dahl (Polyarchy) Democracy includes free elections, political competition, pluralism, civil liberties, and participation. 3. Key Characteristics of Democracy 1. Popular Sovereignty People are the ultimate source of political authority. 2. Free and Fair Elections Elections must be periodic, competitive, and based on universal adult franchise. Example: India, USA, UK. 3. Rule of Law Law is supreme; no one is above the law. Example: Judiciary's power of judicial review in India. 4. Protection of Rights and Liberties Freedom of speech, religion, movement, expression, press, etc. 5. Accountability and Transparency Government is accountable to the parliament and the public. 6. Majority Rule with Minority Protection Decisions are based on the majority but minority rights are safeguarded. Example: Constitutional protections for minorities in India. 7. Pluralism Peaceful coexistence of different social, cultural, political groups. 8. Independent Judiciary Ensures checks and balances, protects rights. 9. Civil Society Participation NGOs, media, and citizens actively participate in governance. 4. Types of Democracy A. Based on Participation 1. Direct Democracy People directly participate in decision-making. Examples: Switzerland’s referendums Ancient Athens 2. Indirect / Representative Democracy People elect representatives who make decisions on their behalf. Examples: India UK USA B. Based on Structure 1. Parliamentary Democracy Executive is part of the legislature; Prime Minister is leader. Example: India, UK. 2. Presidential Democracy Executive is separate from the legislature; President is directly elected. Example: USA. C. Based on Ideology 1. Liberal Democracy Emphasizes civil liberties, political rights, pluralism, rule of law. Example: Germany, Japan. 2. Social Democracy Focuses on welfare, social justice, and economic equality. Example: Scandinavian nations (Sweden, Denmark, Norway). D. Based on Territorial Distribution 1. Unitary Democracy Power centralized. Example: France, China (though authoritarian). 2. Federal Democracy Power shared between centre and state governments. Example: India, USA, Canada. 5. Challenges to Democracy 1. Political Corruption Election malpractices, bribery, and misuse of power weaken democracy. Example: Electoral corruption in developing nations. 2. Illiteracy and Lack of Awareness People cannot make informed choices. 3. Economic Inequality Wealthy influence politics; poor remain powerless. Example: Influence of big corporations in elections. 4. Social Divisions Caste, religion, ethnicity create conflict and vote-bank politics. Example: Caste-based politics in India. 5. Weak Rule of Law Delays in justice weaken confidence in the system. 6. Authoritarian Tendencies Rise of strong leaders who try to weaken democratic institutions. 7. Threat to Media Freedom Press and digital spaces being influenced by governments or corporations. 8. Political Violence Riots, extremism, terrorism disrupt democratic functioning. 9. Populism Leaders make unrealistic promises to gain votes, reducing long-term governance quality. 6. Safeguards of Democracy 1. Free, Fair, and Regular Elections Independent Election Commission, strong laws, and electoral reforms. 2. Rule of Law & Independent Judiciary Ensures constitutionalism and protects rights. Example: Supreme Court of India’s PIL system. 3. Strong Institutions Parliament, civil services, CAG, media must remain independent. 4. Protection of Minority Rights Cultural, educational, linguistic rights should be preserved. 5. Active Civil Society NGOs, activists, media must hold government accountable. 6. Decentralization of Power Local governance (Panchayati Raj) promotes participation at grassroots. 7. Political Education Citizens must know their rights, duties, and democratic values. 8. Transparency and Accountability RTI Act, audits, social accountability mechanisms. 9. Free Media Independent press is essential for public debate and information. 10. Constitutional Safeguards Fundamental rights, separation of powers, checks and balances. Conclusion Democracy is not just a system of government—it is a way of life based on dignity, equality, liberty, and participation. While it faces serious challenges in the modern world, strong institutions, vigilant citizens, and constitutional protections can ensure its survival and growth.

Military council/junta.