B. A. IIIrd Semester, Class Notes

Paper Title: Foundation of Western Political Thought

Unit VI: Utilitarian Thought: Bentham

By
Dr. Farzeen Khan

1. Introduction to Jeremy Bentham and Utilitarianism:

- Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was a prominent English philosopher and political theorist, known for his pioneering work in the development of Utilitarianism, also referred to as the principle of utility or the greatest happiness principle.

- His key work, "An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation" (written in 1780, published in 1789), laid the foundation for this philosophy, focusing on the idea that the rightness of actions should be judged based on their ability to produce happiness or reduce suffering.

- This book also reflected the American Revolution, a significant era symbolizing the rise of individual rights and shaping modern governance.

2. Morality According to Bentham:

Critique of Traditional Morality – Explained

Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, believed that most traditional moral systems (like those based on religion, natural law, or conscience) were vague, subjective, and inconsistent. He argued that moral rules should not depend on what different people feel is right or wrong, but on something that can be observed and measured — pleasure and pain.

1. Rejection of Religious Morality

Traditional morality often justified actions by saying they were according to “God’s will.”
Bentham criticized this by saying that different religions interpret God’s will differently, so it can’t be a reliable guide for everyone.
He said people often call something “God’s will” simply because they personally approve of it.

Example:
If one person says “It’s God’s will that women should not work outside” and another says “God wants women to be free and independent,” both cannot be right.
→ Therefore, using God’s will as a basis for morality is subjective, depending on personal belief, not reason.

2. Rejection of Natural Law

The Natural Law theory says that moral principles are found in nature or reason (e.g., “It is natural for men to rule and women to obey”).
Bentham called such claims nonsense upon stilts — meaning high-sounding but empty ideas.
He believed that people use the term “natural law” to justify their own opinions and traditions.

Example:
In earlier times, slavery was defended as “natural” because some people believed it followed the natural order.
→ Bentham would say this is not natural, it is cruel because it increases pain and reduces happiness for many people.
→ Therefore, moral judgment should depend on how much happiness or suffering an action causes, not on what someone calls “natural.”

3. Rejection of Morality Based on Conscience

Many philosophers (like Butler or Shaftesbury) said people should follow their conscience or “inner moral sense.”
Bentham disagreed because conscience differs from person to person — it cannot be a universal guide.

Example:
One person’s conscience may tell him it’s wrong to lie under any circumstances.
Another’s conscience may say it’s okay to lie to save a life.
→ Hence, “conscience” is subjective, not a consistent moral standard.

4. Bentham’s Alternative: Pleasure and Pain

Bentham proposed that moral rules should be based on human experience of pleasure and pain — something everyone can feel and measure.

His Principle of Utility says:

“The greatest happiness of the greatest number is the measure of right and wrong.”

Example:
Suppose the government must decide whether to legalize public parks.

Building parks increases happiness for thousands (recreation, health, social peace).
The pain (cost, maintenance) is limited to a few.
→ Therefore, according to Bentham, it is morally right because it maximizes overall happiness.

In Summary:

Traditional Morality Source	Bentham’s Criticism	Example
Religion / God’s Will	Subjective and varies by belief	Different religions give opposite moral commands
Natural Law	Abstract and misused to justify oppression	Slavery once justified as “natural”
Conscience / Inner Sense	Differs from person to person	Lying may be right for one, wrong for another
Bentham’s View	Morality = based on pleasure and pain, measurable and universal	Public park benefits majority → morally good

3. The Principle of Utility:

- Bentham’s principle of utility emphasizes that actions should be judged by their ability to promote pleasure and reduce pain.

- For Bentham, utility refers to the usefulness of something in terms of its capacity to provide happiness or pleasure.

4. Utility and Happiness:

- Bentham’s concept of utility is directly tied to pleasure and happiness. Unlike modern uses of the term (where utility refers to useful tools or services), Bentham’s utility is about maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering.

- His approach to life, known as hedonism, is based on the pursuit of pleasure as the ultimate goal and the avoidance of pain.

5. Bentham’s Hedonistic Theory:

- Bentham argued that every action is motivated by the desire for happiness and the avoidance of pain.

- His theory links directly to psychology, where he claimed that humans are governed by the pursuit of pleasure and the aversion to pain.

- Both individuals and governments should aim to create the greatest amount of happiness and the least amount of suffering for everyone involved.

6. Key Elements of Bentham’s Theory:

- Psychological Basis: All people desire happiness, and this motivates all their actions.

- Happiness as the Ultimate Goal: Bentham believed happiness is the ultimate aim of human life, not a means to an end.

- Equality of Pleasures: Bentham argued that all pleasures are equal in quality but differ in quantity. This point was later challenged by philosophers like John Stuart Mill.

7. The Hedonic Calculus:

- Bentham developed a tool called the hedonic calculus to quantify pleasure and pain resulting from an action.

Factors in the Hedonic Calculus:

1. Intensity: How intense is the pleasure or pain?

2. Duration: How long does the pleasure or pain last?

3. Certainty: How likely is it that the pleasure or pain will occur?

4. Propinquity: How soon will the pleasure or pain occur?

5. Fecundity: Will the pleasure lead to more pleasure in the future?

6. Purity: Will the pleasure lead to future pain, or vice versa?

7. Extent; How many people will be affected by the pleasure or pain?

Example 1: Choosing Between Reading a Book or Playing a Sport:

- If playing a sport gives you 50 units of pleasure and reading a book gives you 40 units, then according to the hedonic calculus, playing the sport is the better choice.

8. Good vs. Right Actions:

- Bentham differentiates between good actions and right actions.

- A good action brings about pleasure, while a right action is the one that maximizes pleasure and minimizes pain compared to other available options.

Example 2: Choosing Between Multiple Tasks:

- If Task A provides 100 units of pleasure, Task B provides 75, Task C provides 40, and Task D provides 25, the right choice is Task A because it produces the most pleasure.

9. Motive and Consequences:

- Bentham placed significant emphasis on consequences when evaluating the morality of an action.

- Primary consequences affect the individual, while secondary consequences affect society as a whole.

Example 3: Stolen Belongings:

- If someone’s belongings are stolen, the primary consequence is the person’s immediate loss and sadness. The secondary consequence is the fear and insecurity it spreads throughout society. Bentham argued that secondary consequences often have greater impact than primary ones.

10. Critique of Bentham’s Utilitarianism:

- Bentham’s utilitarianism is often criticized for focusing on the quantity of pleasure and not its quality, which led philosophers like John Stuart Mill to refine the theory.

- His hedonic paradox raises questions about short-term pleasure leading to long-term pain, making the pursuit of immediate happiness sometimes problematic.

11. Conclusion:

- Bentham’s utilitarianism revolutionized ethical and political thought by putting happiness and pleasure at the center of moral decision-making.

- His development of the hedonic calculus provided a way to measure pleasure, but the simplicity of his theory—treating all pleasures equally—led to its critique and further refinement by subsequent philosophers.

🌟 1. What is Utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism comes from the word “utility”, meaning usefulness or benefit.
It is an ethical and political theory that says:

“The right action or law is the one that produces the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people.”

This idea was developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) and later modified by John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).

⚖️ 2. Bentham’s Utilitarianism — The Core Idea

Bentham said that human beings are ruled by two masters — pleasure and pain.
Everything we do is to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
Therefore, a good government or a good law should also increase pleasure (happiness) and reduce pain (suffering) for the largest number of people.

This idea is called Hedonistic Utilitarianism, because it is based on pleasure (hedone).

🔢 3. The Principle of Utility

Bentham’s principle is simple:

“An action is right if it tends to promote happiness, and wrong if it tends to produce unhappiness.”

He even tried to measure happiness mathematically, using what he called the “Hedonic Calculus.”

📏 Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus — 7 Factors

He said we can calculate pleasure or pain by considering:

Intensity – How strong is the pleasure?
Duration – How long will it last?
Certainty – How sure are we that it will happen?
Propinquity – How soon will it happen?
Fecundity – Will it lead to more pleasure in future?
Purity – Is it free from pain?
Extent – How many people are affected?

💡 Example (Simple)

Suppose the government wants to increase electricity prices.

Poor people will suffer more pain (because of high bills).
Rich people can manage.
The revenue earned may help in improving infrastructure.

According to Bentham’s logic, the government should choose the option that gives the maximum overall happiness — maybe by keeping lower rates for poor households and slightly higher rates for rich ones.

🇮🇳 4. Indian Examples of Bentham’s Utilitarianism

a) Free Ration Scheme (PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana)

It gives food grains to millions of poor citizens.
It increases happiness for a large number of people at a small cost to the government.
➡️ Utilitarian logic: “Maximum happiness for maximum people.”

b) Abolition of Triple Talaq (2019)

The law aimed to protect Muslim women’s rights and dignity.
Though it affected a specific group, it increased happiness and justice for many women.
➡️ Again, it fits Bentham’s greatest happiness principle.

c) Subsidies for Farmers

Help reduce rural distress and increase social welfare.
Bentham would call this a moral policy, as it prevents pain (poverty, suicide) and brings happiness.

🏛️ 5. Bentham’s Political Views

Concept	Bentham’s View
Purpose of government	To secure the happiness of all citizens
Law	A tool to maximize social good
Punishment	Should be used only when it prevents greater harm
Democracy	Necessary, because everyone’s happiness counts equally
Religion and Morality	Should be separated from law; laws must be based on reason and utility

🧩 6. Criticism of Bentham’s Theory

Ignores quality of happiness: Treats all pleasures as equal (e.g., reading poetry = eating sweets).
Difficult to measure happiness: Emotions cannot always be calculated.
Majority tyranny: Sometimes the happiness of the majority may harm minorities.
- Example: If the majority supports a harmful policy against a minority group, Bentham’s logic could justify it.

🧠 7. Difference between Bentham and J. S. Mill

Basis	Jeremy Bentham	John Stuart Mill
Type of Utilitarianism	Quantitative	Qualitative
Main Focus	Quantity of pleasure	Quality of pleasure
Definition of Happiness	Pleasure = happiness; all pleasures equal	Some pleasures (mental, moral) are higher than others
Famous Quote	“Greatest happiness of greatest number”	“Better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.”
View on Individual Rights	Rights depend on usefulness	Strong supporter of liberty and individual rights
View on Government	Promote majority happiness	Protect minorities, safeguard freedom of thought
Example	Eating sweets and reading books give equal pleasure if both make you happy	Reading books gives higher (intellectual) pleasure than eating sweets

📘 Example (Indian Context)

Bentham’s View: Opening more cinema halls and entertainment shows brings happiness to many → good policy.
Mill’s View: Opening more schools and libraries develops higher pleasures (education, moral growth) → better policy.

So, Bentham = more pleasure,
Mill = better pleasure.

🧭 8. Influence on Modern Politics and India

Bentham’s utilitarian ideas deeply influenced:

Democratic principles — equality, welfare, and majority rule.
Legal reforms — codification of laws (inspired India’s IPC, Evidence Act, etc.).
Public policy making — welfare schemes that aim at social happiness.

💬 In Short

Aspect	Bentham’s Idea
Human nature	Seeks pleasure, avoids pain
Moral principle	Greatest happiness of the greatest number
Law & government	Tools to promote social welfare
Indian connection	Welfare schemes, social justice policies
Key difference (Mill)	Bentham = quantity, Mill = quality of happiness

🪶 Conclusion

Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism transformed political thinking by linking law, ethics, and happiness.
He made politics people-centered, not power-centered.
Although John Stuart Mill refined his theory by adding moral and qualitative depth, Bentham’s ideas remain the foundation of modern democratic and welfare systems — including in India.

Class Notes: John Stuart Mill's Modifications of Bentham's Utilitarianism

John Stuart Mill was a key figure in 19th-century philosophy and made substantial contributions to the revision of Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism. While Mill was a student and follower of Bentham, he made several critical amendments to Bentham’s ideas, transforming the theory in significant ways.

1. Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism:

- Bentham's theory, known as utilitarianism, was rooted in the idea that actions are morally right if they maximize happiness and minimize pain for the greatest number of people.

- Bentham introduced a hedonistic calculus to measure pleasure and pain, asserting that all pleasures and pains could be quantified.

- Good actions, according to Bentham, are those that result in the greatest happiness, while bad actions bring about suffering.

- This approach was quantitative, meaning that the amount of pleasure or pain generated by an action was the primary criterion for determining its morality.

2. Criticism of Bentham's Utilitarianism:

- Critics of Bentham's theory called it a "pig philosophy," reducing morality to the pursuit of pleasure without considering the qualitative nature of human experiences.

- This led to concerns that Bentham's utilitarianism degraded human dignity by focusing solely on pleasure.

3. Mill's Response to the Critics:

- John Stuart Mill was greatly affected by the criticisms of Bentham's utilitarianism and sought to defend his mentor's theory, though he introduced key modifications to address these criticisms.

Key Modifications by John Stuart Mill:

4. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Pleasure:

- While Bentham argued that all pleasures are of equal value and only differ in quantity, Mill introduced the idea that pleasures differ in quality as well as quantity.

- Mill made the distinction between higher and lower pleasures.

- Higher pleasures are those of the mind (intellectual pursuits like reading poetry or philosophy).

- Lower pleasures are more bodily or sensual (like playing a physical game or indulging in food).

- For Mill, the pursuit of higher pleasures (intellectual and moral) leads to a more meaningful and fulfilling life.

- Mill’s famous statement summarizes this view: "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."

- He emphasized that quality of pleasure matters more than quantity. A person who has experienced both types of pleasure will naturally prefer the higher quality one, even if it brings less immediate pleasure.

5. Complexity of Calculating Pleasure:

- Bentham’s hedonistic calculus, which attempted to measure pleasure and pain in terms of quantity, was criticized by Mill.

- Mill pointed out that pleasure and pain are subjective experiences and cannot be easily measured or compared in a purely quantitative way.

- Different individuals might experience the same pleasure with different intensities, making it difficult to apply Bentham’s calculus universally.

- According to Mill, happiness and suffering are too complex to be reduced to simple arithmetic. Instead, one should consider the quality and type of pleasure an action generates.

6. Importance of Dignity and Self-Realization:

- Another key modification Mill made to Bentham’s theory was his emphasis on dignity and self-realization as central to human happiness.

- Mill argued that individuals value dignity and self-respect as much as or more than immediate pleasure.

- For Mill, self-fulfillment and personal development are essential goals in life, beyond just seeking pleasure.

- He suggested that the pursuit of higher intellectual and moral goals contributes to self-realization and ultimately leads to a more meaningful existence.

7. Liberty and Individual Rights:

- In addition to his amendments to utilitarianism, Mill is well-known for his work on individual liberty in his book "On Liberty."

- Mill believed that personal freedom was crucial for individuals to pursue their own happiness and self-development.

- He argued that individuals should be free to pursue their own paths to happiness as long as they do not harm others. This view adds another layer to Bentham’s utilitarianism by emphasizing individual rights and freedom of choice.

8. Mill’s Defense of Utilitarianism:

- Despite his modifications, Mill remained a defender of utilitarianism as a moral theory.

- He asserted that utilitarianism is not a degrading philosophy, as critics claimed, but rather an elevating principle that prioritizes the greater good while also recognizing the importance of individual dignity and higher moral goals.

Summary of Mill’s Key Amendments:

1. Qualitative difference in pleasures – Intellectual pleasures are higher than bodily pleasures.

2. Rejection of the hedonistic calculus – Pleasures and pains are subjective and not easily measurable.

3. Focus on dignity and self-realization – Happiness is not just about pleasure, but also about personal growth and respect.

4. Importance of individual liberty– Mill valued personal freedom as essential for human happiness and development.

By modifying Bentham's utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill created a more nuanced version of the theory, one that accounts for the complexities of human experience and recognizes the value of higher pleasures, dignity, and individual freedom. This made utilitarianism a more sophisticated and widely applicable ethical framework.

B. A. 3rd Sem, Unit VI, (Utilitarianism: Jaremy Bentham) Political Science, KU-NEP based Class Notes