B. A. 3rd Sem, Unit VI, (Utilitarianism: Jaremy Bentham) Political Science, KU-NEP based Class Notes

B. A. IIIrd Semester, Class Notes

Paper Title: Foundation of Western Political Thought

Unit VI: Utilitarian Thought: Bentham

By
Dr. Farzeen Khan

1. Introduction to Jeremy Bentham and Utilitarianism:

- Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was a prominent English philosopher and political theorist, known for his pioneering work in the development of Utilitarianism, also referred to as the principle of utility or the greatest happiness principle.

- His key work, "An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation" (written in 1780, published in 1789), laid the foundation for this philosophy, focusing on the idea that the rightness of actions should be judged based on their ability to produce happiness or reduce suffering.

- This book also reflected the American Revolution, a significant era symbolizing the rise of individual rights and shaping modern governance.

2. Morality According to Bentham:

2.1. Critique of Traditional Morality:

- Bentham rejected traditional moral concepts based on religion, natural law, or philosophical doctrines like divine will and human conscience.

- He criticized these views as subjective and argued that people label what suits them as “God’s will” or “natural law”, without any objective basis.

- Instead, he proposed that morality should be based on the tangible experience of pleasure and pain, rather than abstract ideas.

2.2. Definition of Good and Evil:

- For Bentham, “good” is any action that produces pleasure, while “evil” is any action that leads to pain. His approach is fundamentally about the consequences of actions.

- An action is morally good if it leads to more happiness than pain, and morally bad if it causes more pain than happiness.

2.3. Universal Application of Happiness:

- Bentham’s morality applies to all individuals and societies, as he believed that everyone seeks happiness and tries to avoid suffering.

- His moral framework aims to maximize happiness for the greatest number of people, as everyone desires to live a happy life.

2.4. Psychological Basis of Morality:

- Bentham's theory is grounded in a psychological understanding of human nature. He claimed that all human actions are motivated by the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of pain.

- Thus, morality is determined by the consequences of actions in terms of increasing pleasure and minimizing pain.

2.5. Sovereignty of Pleasure and Pain:

- Bentham famously stated, “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters: pain and pleasure.”

- These two forces guide all human actions, and morality is about maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain in all decisions.

3. The Principle of Utility:

- Bentham’s principle of utility emphasizes that actions should be judged by their ability to promote pleasure and reduce pain.

- For Bentham, utility refers to the usefulness of something in terms of its capacity to provide happiness or pleasure. 

4. Utility and Happiness:

- Bentham’s concept of utility is directly tied to pleasure and happiness. Unlike modern uses of the term (where utility refers to useful tools or services), Bentham’s utility is about maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering.

- His approach to life, known as hedonism, is based on the pursuit of pleasure as the ultimate goal and the avoidance of pain.

5. Bentham’s Hedonistic Theory:

- Bentham argued that every action is motivated by the desire for happiness and the avoidance of pain.

- His theory links directly to psychology, where he claimed that humans are governed by the pursuit of pleasure and the aversion to pain.

- Both individuals and governments should aim to create the greatest amount of happiness and the least amount of suffering for everyone involved.

6. Key Elements of Bentham’s Theory:

- Psychological Basis: All people desire happiness, and this motivates all their actions.

- Happiness as the Ultimate Goal: Bentham believed happiness is the ultimate aim of human life, not a means to an end.

- Equality of Pleasures: Bentham argued that all pleasures are equal in quality but differ in quantity. This point was later challenged by philosophers like John Stuart Mill.

 7. The Hedonic Calculus:

- Bentham developed a tool called the hedonic calculus to quantify pleasure and pain resulting from an action.

 Factors in the Hedonic Calculus:

  1. Intensity: How intense is the pleasure or pain?

  2. Duration: How long does the pleasure or pain last?

  3. Certainty: How likely is it that the pleasure or pain will occur?

  4. Propinquity: How soon will the pleasure or pain occur?

  5. Fecundity: Will the pleasure lead to more pleasure in the future?

  6. Purity: Will the pleasure lead to future pain, or vice versa?

  7. Extent; How many people will be affected by the pleasure or pain?

Example 1: Choosing Between Reading a Book or Playing a Sport:

- If playing a sport gives you 50 units of pleasure and reading a book gives you 40 units, then according to the hedonic calculus, playing the sport is the better choice.

8. Good vs. Right Actions:

- Bentham differentiates between good actions and right actions.

- A good action brings about pleasure, while a right action is the one that maximizes pleasure and minimizes pain compared to other available options.

Example 2: Choosing Between Multiple Tasks:

- If Task A provides 100 units of pleasure, Task B provides 75, Task C provides 40, and Task D provides 25, the right choice is Task A because it produces the most pleasure.

9. Motive and Consequences:

- Bentham placed significant emphasis on consequences when evaluating the morality of an action.

- Primary consequences affect the individual, while secondary consequences affect society as a whole.

Example 3: Stolen Belongings:

- If someone’s belongings are stolen, the primary consequence is the person’s immediate loss and sadness. The secondary consequence is the fear and insecurity it spreads throughout society. Bentham argued that secondary consequences often have greater impact than primary ones.

10. Critique of Bentham’s Utilitarianism:

- Bentham’s utilitarianism is often criticized for focusing on the quantity of pleasure and not its quality, which led philosophers like John Stuart Mill to refine the theory.

- His hedonic paradox raises questions about short-term pleasure leading to long-term pain, making the pursuit of immediate happiness sometimes problematic.

11. Conclusion:

- Bentham’s utilitarianism revolutionized ethical and political thought by putting happiness and pleasure at the center of moral decision-making.

- His development of the hedonic calculus provided a way to measure pleasure, but the simplicity of his theory—treating all pleasures equally—led to its critique and further refinement by subsequent philosophers.

Class Notes: John Stuart Mill's Modifications of Bentham's Utilitarianism

John Stuart Mill was a key figure in 19th-century philosophy and made substantial contributions to the revision of Jeremy Bentham's utilitarianism. While Mill was a student and follower of Bentham, he made several critical amendments to Bentham’s ideas, transforming the theory in significant ways.

1. Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism:

- Bentham's theory, known as utilitarianism, was rooted in the idea that actions are morally right if they maximize happiness and minimize pain for the greatest number of people.

- Bentham introduced a hedonistic calculus to measure pleasure and pain, asserting that all pleasures and pains could be quantified.

- Good actions, according to Bentham, are those that result in the greatest happiness, while bad actions bring about suffering.

- This approach was quantitative, meaning that the amount of pleasure or pain generated by an action was the primary criterion for determining its morality.

2. Criticism of Bentham's Utilitarianism:

- Critics of Bentham's theory called it a "pig philosophy," reducing morality to the pursuit of pleasure without considering the qualitative nature of human experiences. 

- This led to concerns that Bentham's utilitarianism degraded human dignity by focusing solely on pleasure.

3. Mill's Response to the Critics:

- John Stuart Mill was greatly affected by the criticisms of Bentham's utilitarianism and sought to defend his mentor's theory, though he introduced key modifications to address these criticisms.

  

Key Modifications by John Stuart Mill:

4. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Pleasure:

- While Bentham argued that all pleasures are of equal value and only differ in quantity, Mill introduced the idea that pleasures differ in quality as well as quantity.

  - Mill made the distinction between higher and lower pleasures.

    - Higher pleasures are those of the mind (intellectual pursuits like reading poetry or philosophy).

    - Lower pleasures are more bodily or sensual (like playing a physical game or indulging in food).

  - For Mill, the pursuit of higher pleasures (intellectual and moral) leads to a more meaningful and fulfilling life.

  - Mill’s famous statement summarizes this view: "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."

  - He emphasized that quality of pleasure matters more than quantity. A person who has experienced both types of pleasure will naturally prefer the higher quality one, even if it brings less immediate pleasure.

5. Complexity of Calculating Pleasure:

- Bentham’s hedonistic calculus, which attempted to measure pleasure and pain in terms of quantity, was criticized by Mill.

- Mill pointed out that pleasure and pain are subjective experiences and cannot be easily measured or compared in a purely quantitative way.

  - Different individuals might experience the same pleasure with different intensities, making it difficult to apply Bentham’s calculus universally.

  - According to Mill, happiness and suffering are too complex to be reduced to simple arithmetic. Instead, one should consider the quality and type of pleasure an action generates.

6. Importance of Dignity and Self-Realization:

- Another key modification Mill made to Bentham’s theory was his emphasis on dignity and self-realization as central to human happiness.

  - Mill argued that individuals value dignity and self-respect as much as or more than immediate pleasure.

  - For Mill, self-fulfillment and personal development are essential goals in life, beyond just seeking pleasure.

  - He suggested that the pursuit of higher intellectual and moral goals contributes to self-realization and ultimately leads to a more meaningful existence.

7. Liberty and Individual Rights:

- In addition to his amendments to utilitarianism, Mill is well-known for his work on individual liberty in his book "On Liberty."

  - Mill believed that personal freedom was crucial for individuals to pursue their own happiness and self-development.

  - He argued that individuals should be free to pursue their own paths to happiness as long as they do not harm others. This view adds another layer to Bentham’s utilitarianism by emphasizing individual rights and freedom of choice.

8. Mill’s Defense of Utilitarianism:

- Despite his modifications, Mill remained a defender of utilitarianism as a moral theory.

  - He asserted that utilitarianism is not a degrading philosophy, as critics claimed, but rather an elevating principle that prioritizes the greater good while also recognizing the importance of individual dignity and higher moral goals.

Summary of Mill’s Key Amendments:

1. Qualitative difference in pleasures – Intellectual pleasures are higher than bodily pleasures.

2. Rejection of the hedonistic calculus – Pleasures and pains are subjective and not easily measurable.

3. Focus on dignity and self-realization – Happiness is not just about pleasure, but also about personal growth and respect.

4. Importance of individual liberty– Mill valued personal freedom as essential for human happiness and development.

By modifying Bentham's utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill created a more nuanced version of the theory, one that accounts for the complexities of human experience and recognizes the value of higher pleasures, dignity, and individual freedom. This made utilitarianism a more sophisticated and widely applicable ethical framework.