M.A.3rd Sem, KU-Women's Studies, Paper-4, Unit-I (Women Health- Past & Presente) Class Notes

 By Dr. Farzeen

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Unit I: Women’s Health Issues – Past and Present

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1. Introduction — Why Study Women’s Health Separately?

• Women’s health is shaped by both biological and social determinants.

• Beyond reproduction, it includes nutritional, psychological, occupational, and ageing-related issues.

• Health inequities arise from patriarchy, poverty, cultural taboos, restricted mobility, and unequal access to healthcare.

• A life-course perspective is essential — adolescent health impacts reproductive health, which in turn influences women’s mid-life and old age health outcomes.

2. Historical Context of Women’s Health

(a) Health and Reproduction in Traditional Societies

• Women’s health was historically perceived through the biological lens of reproduction and childbearing.

• Primary focus: fertility, pregnancy, childbirth, and lactation.

• The identity of women was closely tied to their reproductive roles, often neglecting their overall well-being.

(b) Traditional Systems of Medicine

• Ayurveda: Emphasis on balancing doshas (Vata, Pitta, Kapha) through herbal medicines, yoga, diet, and lifestyle.

• Unani medicine: Focused on humoral theory (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile). Women’s reproductive disorders were linked with imbalance in humors.

• Folk practices: Reliance on dais (traditional midwives) and indigenous healers for deliveries and maternal care.

• Many practices were culturally embedded but lacked scientific backing, sometimes leading to complications.

(c) Absence of Institutional Healthcare

• Pre-colonial era: Health largely confined to the domestic sphere.

• Colonial period: British introduced modern hospitals but these were mostly urban-centric, elite-oriented, and male-dominated.

• Rural women continued to depend on dais, with little access to skilled obstetric care.

• Maternal and infant mortality was alarmingly high due to:

  • Lack of hygiene during childbirth

  • Superstitions and taboos around pregnancy

  • Malnutrition and anemia

  • Repeated pregnancies

(d) Women’s Health in Public Policy (Pre-Independence)

• Women’s health was almost invisible in colonial public policy.

• Healthcare planning was primarily military and urban oriented.

• The Bhore Committee Report (1946) first recommended integration of maternal and child health in public health policy, laying the foundation for post-independence initiatives.

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2. Contemporary Women’s Health Issues

(a) Maternal Health

• Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR):

  • India has shown significant progress:

    • 2014-16 → 130 deaths per 100,000 live births

    • 2018-20 → 97 deaths per 100,000 live births (Sample Registration System, Registrar General of India, 2023).

  • Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) target: <70 per 100,000 by 2030.

• Institutional deliveries:

  • Increased due to Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) and Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK).

  • NFHS-5 (2019–21): 89% institutional births in India, but rural-urban gaps persist.

• Challenges:

  • Inadequate ante-natal check-ups, particularly in remote and hilly regions (e.g., Uttarakhand).

  • Shortage of gynecologists and trained nurses in primary health centres.

(b) Reproductive Health

• Family Planning & Contraception:

  • NFHS-5: 66.7% contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) in India.

  • Sterilization remains the most common method, reflecting gendered burden of family planning.

• Abortion Rights:

  • Governed by Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 (amended in 2021).

  • Allows abortion up to 24 weeks under specific conditions.

  • Yet, unsafe abortions still contribute to 8% of maternal deaths in India (WHO, 2022).

(c) Nutritional Challenges

• Anemia:

  • NFHS-5: 57% of women aged 15–49 are anemic in India.

  • In Uttarakhand: 45.6% women anemic – slightly better than national average but still concerning.

• Malnutrition:

  • Underweight women (BMI <18.5): 18.7% (NFHS-5).

• Urban obesity:

  • Rising prevalence of overweight/obesity among urban women (24% nationally).

  • Linked with sedentary lifestyle and dietary changes.

(d) Communicable Diseases

• HIV/AIDS:

  • Women account for 44% of HIV infections in India (NACO, 2022).

  • Transmission often linked to marital relations due to lack of negotiation power in safe sex.

• Tuberculosis (TB):

  • India bears the world’s highest TB burden, women particularly vulnerable due to malnutrition and stigma.

• Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):

  • Under-reported due to stigma and lack of awareness.

(e) Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)

• Cancers:

  • Breast cancer: Most common among Indian women (26.3% of female cancers).

  • Cervical cancer: Accounts for 16.5% of cancers (ICMR, 2021).

• Cardiovascular diseases & diabetes: Rising due to lifestyle changes.

• Women more prone to late diagnosis because health priorities often directed towards male family members.

(f) Mental Health

• Post-partum depression: 20–25% of new mothers experience symptoms (WHO, 2021).

• Work-life stress: Increasing among urban women balancing employment and domestic work.

• Stigma: Mental health remains poorly addressed, particularly in rural areas.

(g) Social Determinants of Women’s Health

• Gender discrimination: Preference for male child leads to neglect of female health.

• Early marriage: NFHS-5: 23.3% women aged 20–24 married before 18.

• Dowry and domestic violence: Affect mental and physical well-being.

• Mobility restrictions: Limited access to hospitals, especially in conservative societies.

• Economic dependency: Women’s inability to spend on their own healthcare.

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Conclusion

• Women’s health in India has moved from invisibility to recognition, yet it remains shaped by deep-rooted gender inequalities.

• Progress in maternal health and institutional deliveries is remarkable, but challenges like anemia, mental health, gender discrimination, and rural–urban disparities persist.

• A holistic understanding of women’s health must integrate biological, social, cultural, and policy dimensions.

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For Further Unit Visit the following links🔗

Unit 2-

https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2025/09/ma3rd-sem-ku-womens-studies-paper-4_8.html

Unit- 3 

https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2025/09/ma3rd-sem-ku-womens-studies-paper-4_11.html

Unit- 4

https://khanfarzeen.blogspot.com/2025/10/ma3rd-sem-ku-womens-studies-paper-4.html