B. A. 2nd Sem. (Pol.Sc. Major) UnitI I: Introduction to Modern Governments

Unit I: Introduction to Modern Governments

1. Meaning and Concept of Government

Government is a central concept in Political Science and refers to the institutional mechanism through which authority and power are exercised within a state. It is the organized body that formulates public policies, enforces laws, and resolves disputes in society. While the state is a permanent political association, the government is its temporary and dynamic agent.

Scholars emphasize that government is not merely a collection of rulers, but a system of institutions created to achieve collective goals, maintain order, and ensure justice.

Standard Definitions:

• J.W. Garner defines government as “the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed, and realized.” This definition highlights the functional role of government as the executor of state authority.

• Woodrow Wilson views government as “the organization of the common power which enables the state to perform its functions.” Wilson emphasizes organization and efficiency in governance.

• R.G. Gettell explains government as “the machinery through which the purposes of the state are realized.” This definition underlines the instrumental nature of government.

• Harold J. Laski describes government as the means by which the state enforces its will within a given territory.

From these definitions, it becomes clear that government is an essential component of the political system, acting as the operational arm of the state.

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2. Government and State: A Conceptual Distinction

Although often used interchangeably in common language, government and state are distinct concepts in political theory.

Basis	State	Government
Nature	Permanent	Temporary
Scope	Broader concept	Narrower concept
Elements	Population, Territory, Government, Sovereignty	Legislature, Executive, Judiciary
Continuity	Continues despite change of rulers	Changes with elections/revolutions

According to O.P. Gauba, the state represents the political community as a whole, while government refers to those who exercise authority on behalf of the state at a given time.

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3. Essential Features of Government

1. Authority and Legitimacy
   Government possesses legitimate authority, meaning its power is recognized and accepted by the people. Max Weber classified legitimacy into traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational forms.

2. Coercive Power
   Government has the monopoly over the legitimate use of force. This power is necessary to ensure compliance with laws and maintain social order.

3. Territorial Jurisdiction
   The authority of government is exercised within a defined geographical territory.

4. Organized Institutional Structure
   Modern governments function through three main organs:

   • Legislature (law-making)

   • Executive (law-implementation)

   • Judiciary (law-interpretation)

5. Public Welfare Orientation
   Modern democratic governments aim at social welfare, economic development, and protection of rights, reflecting the transition from police state to welfare state.

6. Continuity and Stability
   Despite changes in leadership, government institutions ensure continuity in administration.

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4. Evolution of Government: From City-States to Nation-States

The form and nature of government have evolved in response to social, economic, and historical developments.

(a) Ancient City-States

• Prominent in Ancient Greece (Athens, Sparta) and Rome.

• City-states were small, self-governing political units.

• Direct democracy was practiced in Athens, where citizens directly participated in decision-making.

• According to Aristotle, the city-state existed to promote the ‘good life’.

Limitations:

• Exclusion of women, slaves, and foreigners from citizenship.

• Limited territorial expansion.

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(b) Feudal System

• Dominant in medieval Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire.

• Political power was decentralized and fragmented among feudal lords.

• Loyalty was personal rather than institutional.

• Absence of a centralized authority or sovereignty.

Impact:

• Weak political unity.

• Laid foundations for later centralized monarchies.

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(c) Absolute Monarchies

• Emerged between the 16th and 18th centuries in Europe.

• Kings exercised supreme authority without constitutional limitations.

• Doctrine of Divine Right of Kings justified absolute power.

Examples:

• Louis XIV of France: “I am the State.”

Consequences:

• Centralization of administration.

• Growth of national identity.

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(d) Emergence of Nation-States

• Influenced by the Renaissance, Reformation, and Treaty of Westphalia (1648).

• Introduced the principles of:

  • Territorial sovereignty

  • Legal equality of states

  • Non-interference

The nation-state combined political authority with a shared sense of identity based on culture, language, or history.

According to Heywood, the modern state is characterized by sovereignty, constitutional government, citizenship, and bureaucracy.

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5. Development of Modern Democratic Governments

• Rise of constitutionalism and rule of law.

• Expansion of suffrage and representative institutions.

• Growth of welfare functions in the 20th century.

• Emergence of accountability and citizen participation.

Modern governments today operate within a framework of democracy, human rights, and global interdependence.

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6. Importance of Studying Modern Governments

• Helps understand political institutions and processes.

• Enables comparison of different political systems.

• Promotes democratic awareness and citizenship.

• Assists in analyzing contemporary governance challenges.

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Key References (Unit I):

• Heywood, Andrew. Politics. Bloomsbury.

• Garner, J.W. Political Science and Government.

• Laski, H.J. Grammar of Politics.

• Gauba, O.P. An Introduction to Political Theory.

• Johari, J.C. Comparative Politics.