Issues of Women’s Empowerment

Course: Generic Elective (GE) – Political Science

Unit I: Foundations of Women’s Empowerment (12 Hours)

1. Concept and Definition of Women’s Empowerment

Women’s empowerment is a multidimensional process through which women acquire the power, agency, and resources necessary to exercise control over their lives and influence decisions that affect them at the household, community, national, and global levels.

According to UN Women, empowerment involves women’s ability to participate fully in economic, social, and political life, supported by access to education, healthcare, legal protection, and employment opportunities.

Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach views empowerment as the expansion of women’s real freedoms and capabilities to choose the kind of life they value. Empowerment is not only about outcomes but also about the process of choice and agency.

2. Dimensions of Women’s Empowerment

(a) Social Dimension

Freedom from gender-based discrimination and violence
Elimination of harmful practices such as child marriage and dowry
Equal status within family and society

(b) Economic Dimension

Access to paid employment and productive resources
Equal wages for equal work
Property and inheritance rights
Financial independence and access to credit

(c) Political Dimension

Participation in political institutions and governance
Representation in legislatures and local self-government
Ability to influence public policy and decision-making

(d) Educational Dimension

Equal access to formal and informal education
Skill development and vocational training
Digital literacy in the contemporary knowledge economy

(e) Psychological Dimension

Self-confidence and self-esteem
Awareness of rights and entitlements
Capacity to challenge patriarchal norms

3. Importance of Women’s Empowerment

Central to achieving gender equality and social justice
Enhances economic productivity and national development
Improves indicators of health, nutrition, and education
Strengthens democratic participation and governance
Essential for achieving sustainable development

4. Historical Overview of Global Women’s Movements

First Wave Feminism (19th–Early 20th Century)

Focused on legal rights and political equality
Women’s suffrage movements in the UK, USA, and Europe
Key figures: Mary Wollstonecraft, Emmeline Pankhurst

Second Wave Feminism (1960s–1980s)

Addressed social and economic inequalities
Issues: reproductive rights, workplace discrimination, domestic violence
Slogan: “The personal is political”

Third Wave Feminism (1990s)

Emphasised diversity and individuality
Critiqued universal notions of womanhood
Introduced the concept of intersectionality

Fourth Wave Feminism (21st Century)

Use of digital platforms and social media
Movements like #MeToo and online activism
Focus on sexual harassment, body autonomy, and representation

5. Major Feminist Theories

Liberal Feminism

Advocates equality through legal and political reforms
Focus on education, employment, and legal rights

Marxist Feminism

Links women’s oppression to capitalist economic structures
Highlights unpaid domestic labour and class inequality

Radical Feminism

Identifies patriarchy as the fundamental cause of women’s subordination
Calls for transformation of social and cultural institutions

Intersectional Feminism

Recognises overlapping forms of oppression based on caste, class, race, religion, and gender
Particularly relevant in the Indian socio-cultural context

6. Key Concepts

Gender Equality: A condition where women and men enjoy equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities.

Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold dominant power in political leadership, moral authority, and control over property and family structures.

7. Global Framework: Sustainable Development Goal 5

SDG 5 aims to:

End all forms of discrimination against women and girls
Eliminate violence in public and private spheres
Ensure women’s participation in leadership and decision-making
Provide access to reproductive health and rights

Unit II: Social and Cultural Dimensions (12 Hours)

1. Violence Against Women: Concept and Forms

Violence against women (VAW) refers to any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, psychological, or economic harm or suffering to women. According to the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993), such violence includes threats, coercion, or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.

Major Forms of Violence

Domestic Violence: Physical, emotional, sexual, and economic abuse within the household. In India, it is addressed under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
Sexual Harassment: Unwelcome physical, verbal, or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature at workplaces and public spaces. Governed by the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013.
Trafficking: Forced recruitment, transportation, or exploitation of women and girls for labour or sexual purposes (UN Palermo Protocol).
Cyber Violence: Online harassment, stalking, doxxing, and non-consensual sharing of images.

Causes of Violence

Deep-rooted patriarchy and gender stereotypes
Unequal power relations between men and women
Low legal awareness and under-reporting of crimes
Weak enforcement of laws

2. Role of Education in Women’s Empowerment

Education is universally recognised as one of the most powerful instruments for empowering women.

According to UNESCO, education enables women to acquire knowledge, skills, and confidence necessary for participation in social, economic, and political life.

Importance of Education

Enhances awareness of rights and legal protections
Increases employability and income opportunities
Delays early marriage and reduces fertility rates
Promotes participation in civic and political processes

3. Gender Gap in Literacy and STEM Education

Despite improvements, gender disparities persist in literacy and technical education.

According to Census of India 2011, female literacy (65.46%) remains lower than male literacy (82.14%).
Women are underrepresented in STEM fields due to social conditioning, lack of role models, and institutional barriers.

National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasises gender inclusion, digital literacy, and increased participation of girls in science and technology.

4. Health and Well-being of Women

Health is a critical component of women’s empowerment, closely linked with education, nutrition, and economic status.

Reproductive Rights

Recognised as human rights by the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), 1994.
Include access to contraception, safe abortion, and reproductive healthcare.

Maternal Health

India has reduced maternal mortality through schemes like Janani Suraksha Yojana and Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram.
Institutional deliveries and antenatal care are crucial indicators.

Mental Health

Women face higher mental health risks due to domestic violence, unpaid care work, and social pressures.
Mental well-being is recognised under the WHO framework as integral to overall health.

5. Case Study: Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP)

Launched in 2015 by the Government of India, BBBP aims to address the declining Child Sex Ratio and promote the education of the girl child.

Objectives

Prevent gender-biased sex selection
Ensure survival and protection of the girl child
Promote education and participation of girls

Achievements

Increased awareness regarding gender discrimination
Improvement in enrolment of girls in schools in several districts

Criticisms

Reports by Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) highlighted disproportionate spending on publicity
Limited measurable impact on child sex ratio in some regions

Unit III: Economic Empowerment (12 Hours)

Women’s Participation in the Workforce
Women’s economic participation is a key indicator of empowerment and development. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), women’s labour force participation remains significantly lower than men’s globally, reflecting structural inequalities.

Importance:

Enhances women’s financial independence
Contributes to national economic growth
Improves household welfare and decision-making power

Barriers:

Burden of unpaid care and domestic work (UN Women)
Gender discrimination in hiring and promotion
Lack of safe working environments
Informalisation of women’s work

Gender Wage Gap
The gender wage gap refers to the difference in average earnings between men and women for similar work.

According to the Global Gender Gap Report (World Economic Forum), women earn approximately 20% less than men globally.

Causes:

Occupational segregation
Glass ceiling effect
Limited access to skill training
Weak implementation of equal pay laws

Economic Inequalities
Women have limited access to:

Land and property ownership
Institutional credit
Social security benefits

In India, women constitute a large share of the informal sector, which lacks job security and legal protection.

Role of Microfinance and Financial Inclusion
Microfinance institutions and Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have played a significant role in women’s empowerment.

Key Initiatives:

SHG–Bank Linkage Programme (NABARD)
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana
MUDRA Scheme for women entrepreneurs

Benefits:

Access to credit
Collective bargaining power
Promotion of savings and entrepreneurship

Women Entrepreneurs and Leadership
Women entrepreneurs contribute to innovation, employment generation, and inclusive growth.

Challenges:

Limited access to finance
Social norms and mobility restrictions
Lack of mentoring and networks

Government Support:

Stand-Up India Scheme
Mahila E-Haat

Unit IV: Political Empowerment

1. Concept of Political Empowerment

Political empowerment of women refers to their meaningful participation in political and public decision-making — as voters, candidates, legislators, and leaders — where they can influence governance, policy, and laws. It goes beyond mere presence to substantive influence and leadership. (currentaffairs.chinmayaias.com)

Meaningful political empowerment includes:

Ability to contest elections
Holding elective office
Influence within political parties
Participation in policy formation
This is essential for gender-just governance and is also a key component of SDG 5 (Political inclusion) at the global level. (currentaffairs.chinmayaias.com)

2. Women in Political Leadership – India & Global Scenario

Global Representation

Worldwide, women hold about 26–27% of parliamentary seats — still far below parity. (usthadian.com)
Some countries lead with high representation:
- Rwanda: ~61%
- Sweden: ~47%
- Norway: ~45%
- Bangladesh: ~21%
  — showing how quotas and gender-sensitive policies matter. (Onmanorama)

India: Current Stats

Women’s representation in the Lok Sabha is low — around 13–14% (18th Lok Sabha). (usthadian.com)
Earlier Parliaments show gradual increases from about 5% in the 1st Lok Sabha, but still far below global averages. (usthadian.com)
Women’s share in State Assemblies also remains low — often below 10% in many states. (The Indian Express)

➤ Despite being nearly 50% of the population, women are under-represented in most key political bodies, signaling an inclusion deficit in democratic governance. (usthadian.com)

3. 73rd & 74th Constitutional Amendments – Grassroots Empowerment

The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992) were landmark reforms that transformed local governance by mandating at least one-third (33%) reservation for women in:

Panchayati Raj Institutions (rural)
Municipalities/Urban local bodies (spniwcd.wcd.gov.in)

Key impacts:

Women’s participation in grassroots bodies surged, with over 1.45 million women representatives, making India one of the world’s largest female electorates at the local level. (spniwcd.wcd.gov.in)
This paved the way for political socialisation and leadership experience, overcoming traditional barriers. (spniwcd.wcd.gov.in)
Some states further increased local reservations to 50%. (spniwcd.wcd.gov.in)

4. Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, 2023 (Women’s Reservation Act)

What it is:
The Constitution (One Hundred and Sixth Amendment) Act, 2023, popularly known as Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, reserves 33% of seats for women in:

Lok Sabha — House of the People
State Legislative Assemblies
This aims at broadening women’s political representation across federal levels. (The Times of India)

Key Features

Reservation includes sub-quotas for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) within the 33%. (manoramayearbook.in)
The reservation will continue for 15 years initially and be reviewed by Parliament. (manoramayearbook.in)
The amendment waits for delimitation (post-Census) — likely before 2029 general elections — before implementation. (manoramayearbook.in)
Currently, the Rajya Sabha (Upper House) is not included in the reservation. (The Times of India)

Historical Context

The Women’s Reservation Bill was first introduced in the 1990s and shelved several times before finally being passed in 2023. (CONNECTEK IAS)
Successful passage ended decades of legislative delay and advocacy. (CONNECTEK IAS)

Critiques and Limitations

Implementation is delayed because it depends on Census + Delimitation schedules. (Lawful Legal)
Some scholars argue that without internal reforms in political parties and campaign finance, reservation alone may not deliver substantive empowerment. (rjwave.org)

5. Barriers to Women’s Political Participation

Political empowerment in India is constrained by multiple, intersecting barriers, including:

a) Structural and Institutional Barriers

Patriarchal party structures often nominate fewer women candidates. (adrindia.org)
Funding and campaign finance disadvantages women candidates lacking resources. (rjwave.org)

b) Social & Cultural Barriers

Deep-rooted gender norms limit women’s mobility, visibility, and networking. (Drishti IAS)
Social expectations often confine women to domestic roles rather than public leadership. (Drishti IAS)

c) Tokenism and Proxy Politics

In grassroots bodies, sometimes elected women act as figureheads while male relatives influence decisions (e.g., “sarpanch-pati” phenomenon). (Drishti IAS)

d) Limited Training & Leadership Pipeline

Lack of political training, mentorship, and leadership programmes for women candidates reduces competitiveness. (rjwave.org)

e) Macro-economic Barriers

Women’s economic dependence reduces ability to fund campaigns and sustain political careers. (Drishti IAS)

6. Case Examples of Women Leaders

Prominent women in Indian and global politics include:

Indira Gandhi (India — former PM)
Margaret Thatcher (UK)
Angela Merkel (Germany)
These exemplify how women in executive leadership break stereotypes and influence national narratives — though such instances remain few. (usthadian.com)

7. Importance & Implications

Political empowerment of women leads to:

Gender-sensitive policymaking (on health, education, violence, welfare)
Stronger democratic representation
Reduced gender gaps in governance structures

The reservations (both at local and higher levels) aim to transform India’s representative democracy into one that better reflects its 50% women population. (The Times of India)

Key Terms & Definitions

Political Empowerment – Agency to shape political decision-making
Quota / Reservation – Allocation of seats for under-represented groups
Delimitation – Redrawing of electoral constituencies
Tokenism – Superficial inclusion without real power

Unit V: Legal Frameworks for Women’s Empowerment

Constitutional Provisions for Gender Equality
The Constitution of India provides a strong legal foundation for women’s empowerment.

Article 14: Guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of laws.

Article 15(1): Prohibits discrimination on grounds of sex.

Article 15(3): Empowers the State to make special provisions for women and children (basis of affirmative action).

Article 16: Ensures equality of opportunity in public employment.

Article 39(a) & (d): Directs the State to secure equal livelihood and equal pay for equal work for men and women.

These provisions reflect the vision of substantive equality, not merely formal equality.

Laws Against Gender-Based ViolenceIndia has enacted several laws to protect women from violence and exploitation:

Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Addresses physical, emotional, sexual, and economic abuse.
Indian Penal Code (IPC): Sections 354, 376, 498A deal with sexual assault, rape, and cruelty by husband or relatives.
Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013 (POSH): Ensures safe working environments.
Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: Criminalises dowry demands.
Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956: Addresses trafficking and sexual exploitation.

According to NCRB data, crimes against women continue to be underreported, highlighting the gap between law and implementation.

Role of Judiciary in Women’s Empowerment
The judiciary has played a proactive role through judicial activism and progressive interpretation of laws.

Key Contributions:

Expanding the scope of fundamental rights
Interpreting laws in favour of gender justice
Addressing legislative gaps through guidelines

Landmark Judgments

Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997)

The Supreme Court laid down guidelines against sexual harassment at the workplace, recognising it as a violation of Articles 14, 15, and 21. These guidelines later formed the basis of the POSH Act, 2013.

Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017)

The practice of instant triple talaq (talaq-e-biddat) was declared unconstitutional, affirming Muslim women’s right to equality and dignity.

Joseph Shine v. Union of India (2018)

The Court struck down Section 497 IPC (adultery), recognising women as equal citizens rather than property of husbands.

Role of Civil Society and NGOs
Civil society organisations play a crucial role in:

Legal awareness and advocacy
Support services for victims of violence
Policy lobbying and research

Examples:

SEWA (Self Employed Women’s Association)
Jagori
Lawyers Collective Women’s Rights Initiative

Challenges in Legal Empowerment

Low awareness of legal rights
Social stigma and victim-blaming
Delays in justice delivery
Weak enforcement mechanisms

Conclusion

A strong legal framework is essential but not sufficient for women’s empowerment. Effective implementation, legal literacy, and social change are equally important for achieving gender justice.

B. A. 2nd Sem. Political Science (Minor-GE) Complete Class Notes