Fundamentals of Modern Governments Unit I: Introduction to Modern Governments 1. Meaning and Concept of Government Government is a central concept in Political Science and refers to the institutional mechanism through which authority and power are exercised within a state. It is the organized body that formulates public policies, enforces laws, and resolves disputes in society. While the state is a permanent political association, the government is its temporary and dynamic agent. Scholars emphasize that government is not merely a collection of rulers, but a system of institutions created to achieve collective goals, maintain order, and ensure justice. Standard Definitions: J.W. Garner defines government as “the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed, and realized.” This definition highlights the functional role of government as the executor of state authority. Woodrow Wilson views government as “the organization of the common power which enables...

By Dr. Farzeen Unit V: Challenges and Barriers to Civil Rights 1. Introduction Civil rights are meant to guarantee equality, dignity, and freedom for all citizens. However, in practice, these rights face barriers and challenges due to systemic flaws, social hierarchies, and structural inequalities. These challenges weaken democracy, social justice, and constitutional values . 2. System Barriers (a) Corruption Meaning: Misuse of public office for private gain. Forms: Bribery, nepotism, embezzlement, favoritism. Impact on Civil Rights: Delays in justice delivery. Denial of welfare schemes (ration, pensions, scholarships). Poor service delivery in health, education, employment. Example: PDS (ration system) corruption depriving poor families of food grains. (b) Misuse of Power Meaning: When authorities act arbitrarily, violating constitutional rights. Forms: Police excesses: Fake encounters, custodial deaths. Political misuse: ...

By Dr. FAZEEN FOUNDATIONS OF LEADERSHIP AND SELF-AWARENESS UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP 1. Meaning of Leadership Leadership refers to the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and guide others toward achieving common goals. It involves vision, communication, decision-making, and responsibility. Simple Definition: Leadership is the process of influencing people positively to work willingly for a goal. Key Features Influence (prabhav) Motivation (prerna) Guidance (margdarshan) Vision (drishti) Responsibility (zimmedari) Example: A class representative motivating students to participate in a college event shows leadership. 2. Characteristics of Leadership Goal-Oriented – Leaders work with a clear purpose. Example: A project leader sets weekly milestones. Influence and Motivation – Leaders inspire others. Example: A teacher motivates students to improve attendance. Communication Skills – Leaders express ideas clearly. Integr...

  Question.1.  सार्वजनिक नीति के मूल्यांकन (Public Policy Evaluation) की अवधारणा एवं आवश्यक मानदंड सार्वजनिक नीति का मूल्यांकन वह प्रक्रिया है जिसमें किसी नीति (Policy) की प्रभावशीलता, सफलता, विफलता, उपयोगिता, लागत और उसके वास्तविक परिणामों का व्यवस्थित अध्ययन किया जाता है। सरल शब्दों में, मूल्यांकन यह जांचता है कि— नीति ने अपने उद्देश्यों को कितना पूरा किया? नीति से समाज को वास्तविक लाभ हुआ या नहीं? नीति को जारी रखा जाए, सुधारा जाए या समाप्त कर दिया जाए? मूल्यांकन नीति-निर्माण का अंतिम लेकिन सबसे महत्वपूर्ण चरण माना जाता है क्योंकि यह नीति सुधार और भविष्य की नीतियों की गुणवत्ता बढ़ाने में मदद करता है। सार्वजनिक नीति मूल्यांकन के प्रकार (मुख्य रूप) पूर्व-मूल्यांकन (Pre-evaluation / Ex-ante Evaluation): नीति लागू होने से पहले उसके प्रभावों का अनुमान लगाना। उदाहरण: नई महिला सुरक्षा योजना लागू करने से पहले सरकार अनुमान लगाती है कि इससे अपराध दर में कितनी कमी आ सकती है। मध्यकालीन मूल्यांकन (Mid-term Evaluation): नीति लागू होने के दौरान इसकी प्रगति की समीक्...

 By Dr. Farzeen  Unit-5: Citizenship, Political System, Monarchy, Aristocracy, Authoritarianism, Totalitarianism & Military Dictatorship & Democracy 📘 CLASS NOTES: Concept of Citizenship (Based on O.P. Gauba) 1. Meaning of Citizenship O.P. Gauba explains that citizenship is a legal and political relationship between an individual and the state . A citizen is a full and permanent member of the state , enjoying rights and carrying duties. Simple Meaning: Citizenship means belonging to a state , enjoying protection and rights from the state, and performing duties toward it. Example: A person born in India, who holds an Indian passport, votes in elections, pays taxes, and enjoys constitutional rights is an Indian citizen . 2. Definitions of Citizenship O.P. Gauba: Citizenship refers to a bundle of rights and obligations that define the individual’s role and status in the state . T.H. Marshall (important for exams): Citizenship is composed of three rights ...